Correlational
Holographic Opponent Processing and Art
by Ronald C. Blue April 4, 2006 © All Right Reserved
KEYWORDS: art. correlational holographic opponent-processing, opponent process,
oscillons, wavelets, neuro net, excitatory, inhibitory, oscillation,
holographic, eigenfunction, chaos, nerves, habituation, discorrelation, memory,
sensations, perceptions, emotions, evolution, brain damage, migraines
Abstract:
The correlational holographic opponent-processing theory using wavelets,
quasi-holographic memory and eigenfunction equivalence generates new insights
into many areas of psychology. I have modified the paper
Correlational Opponent Processing at http://u2ai.us
so that it has a focus on art and the brain.
1. Discussion:
Caveat emptor - let the buyer beware. A theory can sound true and not be true.
Always be suspicious of a global theory that explains everything. Correlational
holographic opponent processing theory has many of these characteristics and it
has been a very seductive theory.
A system is a mixture of component parts that when united together produce
results that are greater than any individual part. According to Solomon (1980)
opponent-process is a basic biological system that may be viewed as starting
from a baseline state or equilibrium. Activation of an A process automatically
activates an opposite or opposing process B. The equation then can be stated as
the absolute value of A process minus B process, which creates a resultant. The
resultant can be an observable behavior. "Every experiment generated by
the model has failed to refute the model, even though the experiments have been
designed to be capable of doing so. ... The opponent-processing theory is quite
encompassing".
A simple illustration of correlational holographic opponent-processing can be
accomplished with the following procedure: take your fists and put these side
by side: Press them firmly together for one minute; since your fists are
touching each other and you have made the pressure equal, the situation is
correlated; this balance illustrates correlational holographic
opponent-processing. After pressing your fists together, quickly pull
them a part an inch and hold them there. You will notice that your fists seems
to be attracted toward each other like a magnet!
A wave is an oscillation with a specific number of cycles per second. You can
observe a wave by tying a rope to a wall and modulating the lose end up and
down. If your timing and energy is perfect the wave will bounce back from the
wall as an inversion wave. A wavelet can be made with many individual ropes
vibrating at different frequencies and time cycles. To see the wavelet as a unified
phenomenon the ropes must all be tied together. Another illustration of a
wavelet can be experienced by observing what happens when a rock is thrown into
water. The wave pattern is the structure that determines the wavelet. The water
is just one of many physical systems that possess the characteristic of
allowing wavelets to propagate through them. What is true of physical systems
is normally true of biological and psychological systems.
To understand the concept of opponent process and wavelets consider a wave
machine consisting of two plates of glass that are very close to each other and
sealed so that the blue water and the clear oil inside will not spill out. The
length of the wave machine represents the power spectrum that can exist for the
waves that can be generated in the machine. The waves in the water are
seductively simple in their form. What is not immediately apparent is the fact
that the oil on top of the water is moving as an opponent system to the water.
The sum of all power spectrum over the length of the machine is zero or
balance. At any single position in the wave machine the observed variation
appears to be chaotic and totally random. This of course is not true, the
system as a whole is totally deterministic for the power spectrum of the wave
machine. Now imagine a cube wave machine except now the water and the oil can
mix together so that both systems exist and influence each other. The goal is
to maintain the power spectrum at balance over multiple dimensional wave
machines with different angles of orientation. Not a simple task but you do it
in your brain every second. Pathologies arise when you cannot.
Sometimes the goal of art is to cause you problems in processing the art so
that you become more aware of what Pablo Picasso meant by his statement We all know that art is not the truth, art is a
lie that makes us realize the truth.
For example look at a color television set. Look carefully at the screen with a
magnifying lens. You will see blue, green, and red dots. The dots go on and
off. The dots symbolically represent nerve cells firing. Take the television
set apart. You will see transistors, resistors, capacitors, and integrated
circuits. These symbolically represent nerve cells. When you back up from the
television screen you will observe a picture. The picture originates from a
television electromagnetic wave. If you looked at the electromagnetic wave on an
oscilloscope you would not recognize that the electromagnetic wave corresponds
to or was a copy of the picture that will be ultimately displayed on the
television screen. For human neuro function all that is necessary is that there
be a consistent relationship or association with neuro wavelets and external
and internal events. At this time data suggest that this is a fundamental truth
for the nervous system.
The correlational holographic opponent-processing (CHOP) theory would accept
that all perception, learning and memory is associative, correlational,
energy-efficient, integrative, cognitive, eigenfunction equivalence,
quasi-holographic and the result of information processing. Memory is created
as a correlational pattern of opponent-processing consisting of firing and
inhibition of individual nerve cells. This means the major goal of the brain is
to form the smallest number of correlational firings of nerve cells to external
and internal stimuli (Bower, 1992; Bower, 1994 & Southwell, 1994). Why
nerve cells form correlations at first may seem to be mysterious and connected
to learning or biology. But now it appears the correlations are due to the
results of natural principles that have more to due with the mathematics and
physics of oscillators and synchronization phenomenon (Strogatz and Stewart,
1993) and (Peterson, 1995).
In addition the reason why this is the goal is due to the mathematical way the data or experiences have been packed or compressed as a mental equation or eigenfunction equivalence that allows for the recovery of that information. Another reason why this is the goal is due to the way complex systems adapt through self-organization. Such systems exhibit subcritical, critical, and supercritical phenomenon. For example, if you pour sand in one location it builds up and collapses at different levels of intensity. A subcritical period would be a stable region where the sand is getting larger and larger without collapsing. A small collapse would be a critical event. A large reorganization of the sand would be a supercritical phenomenon. This means that the brain is using a universal adaptive principle of existing on the edge of order and randomness (Ruthen, 1993) & (Pendick, 1993). New cognitions are due to consequences created by randomness, chaos, and major catastrophic reorganization resulting in new integrations. These new cognitions allow for selective advantages for adapting to and understanding the environment. Support for catastrophic reorganization is suggested in the stagewise cognitive development of children reported by Maas and Molenaar (1992).
Any wave system can be used to form holograms. This means the natural physics of the brain is hologram production via neuron wavelets and holographic interference as a weighted gaussian opponent wavelet experiences of the past. Because of this it is easy to use stable visual art to create illusions by interacting with the memory holograms and wavelets. For example subjective motion, subjective color, and subjective pain have been reported when viewing the Ouchi illusion.
2. Oscillators:
Physicist Yoshiki Kuramoto at the University of Kyto, Japan has created a mathematical oscillator model that has implications to the topic of
consciousness, art appreciation and neuro processing (Peterson, 1996). The
basic idea is that ALL oscillators respond to or are characterized by a set of
differential equations with two components. The first equation is used to
describe what each oscillator would due individually. This can be viewed as
phases or wave patterns traced over a circle. The circle must be expanded so
that the start and stop of a cycle occur at the same point. The second equation
is used to describe how oscillators influence each other, i.e. to speed up or
slow down other oscillators. Stability results from the equal and global
collective oscillation frequencies.
The brain can be entrained by art. The entrainment can generate pleasure or emotional reactions. General principle of how to do this is in art. Art reflects the brain organization of the artist which is shared to the audience. Frequently the audience will see something that the artist never saw. That is the beauty and mystery of art. It allows us to experience our own mind and the mind of the artist.
Any collective system of oscillators with two or more equations would start out
chaotic with individual independent oscillations. A phase transition first
suggested by Arthur T. Winfree at the University of Arizona in Tucson analogous
to phase transitions such as the freezing of a liquid results in an
intermediate stage in which oscillators are partially synchronized. Oscillators
near the average gaussian frequencies phase lock and cause the collective to
emerge as a coherence. This would equal a THOUGHT, perceptron, or conscious
experience. It is important to remember this is a global system with individual
interaction of neural oscillators. So one can phase shift any wavelet component
in neuro processing and influence other wavelet neuro processing system. For
example; running on a treadmill get off quickly and see the room appear to go
forward from a gaussian opponent wavelet interaction. Going to an
art museum and seeing works of art will also effect the brain through
entrainment.
Also the formation of neural
oscillons, correlational holographic opponent-process, phase shifting via
wavelet distortion, and the TOTAL reference of ALL interacting information
would be important to understanding what is happening. Examples, illusions..
Also the WEIGHT and timing of the information in the oscillation loops would be
important. Ones current emotional moods and knowledge will
influence what you see and feel when looking at or experiencing art.
3. The Quantum Mechanical Brain
The idea that the mind may be influenced by quantum
mechanics is not contradicted by Correlational Holographic Opponent Processing
(CHOP) theory. It does not require a great leap of intellectual insight to
connect Guastello's (1988) concepts of catastrophe theory, chaos, and the cusp
model to neuro-processing and quantum mechanics. The manifold and cusp model
could be influenced at the critical moment by quantum
effects. This possibility would allow our minds to connect to
the minds of the artist and experience the art as a whole then its parts.
We would perceive it before we could see it. We would feel it before we
could understand it.
According R. Tim Coslet (1995) when viewing a hologram with a different laser
frequency than the one used to take the picture the image produced results in a
change in size proportional to the change in wavelength between the two light
sources. Neural quasi-holograms should produce variation and deviations from
the original memory in a Gaussian distribution. This would result from the
recovery of memories with different oscillating neural frequencies.
Literally the picture would change as our minds interact with it. A
dynamic interaction between the mind and a work of art.
Theios and Amrhein (1989) research suggest that "a stimulus is a stimulus
is a stimulus, independent of its ... mode". This puzzling result suggests
that a holographic neurowavelet is created by brain wave modulations created by
stimuli and the interactions or correlation of current experience and changes
in neuroconnections from long-term potentiation and long-term desensitization
due to past experience.
Ghislaine Dehaene-Lambertz and Stanislas Dehaene (1994) research on speech
sounds and changes in baby's brains suggest a mirror image of the stimulus
wavelet. This mirror image is in our opinion a memory wavelet. Since a wavelet
is like an average, the standard 3-modulation pattern for event-related
potential (ERP) is interpreted to represent an approximation of the average
wavelet for the stimulus "ba". The surprise stimulus "ga"
is followed by an inversion ERP. This inversion is interpreted as a memory
wavelet for "ba" + not. If this pattern can be replicated it would
suggest support for correlational holographic opponent-processing theory.
The observer in quantum
mechanics is viewed as important because they cause reality to come into
existence. It may be extremely difficult to see anything two ways at
once. For example the opponent color American flag illusion. Color
is processed as an opponent process. Blue/yellow, red/green and
black/white dichotomies are calculated and send to the back of the brain for
analysis. By over using the colors the opposite or opponent colors will
be perceived by the brain. It takes about 45 seconds to see the illusion
by habituating the stimulus colors by staring at the middle dot then looking to
the right and blink your eyes.
4. Attractors and consciousness:
Oliver Sacks (1992) reported that 60 patients out of 396 lost consciousness
associated with migraines. Migraines with visual auras and complicated
mathematical geometric designs have been reported. Such designs suggest
interacting wavelets. In electronics a repeating oscillation can result in a
display similar to the reported visual auras reported by some migraine
subjects. Major movements in art may have been created by migraine auras such
as cubism, pointillism, modern abstract art, and reversal of figure and ground.
Some migraine auras are similar to the spiral illusion inside a spiral illusion
reported by Gardner (1995) in his letter to the editor on the waterfall
illusion. In a conversation with Gardner he informed us that Aristotle reported
the waterfall illusion over two thousand years ago. PET scans indicate that the
projection area stimulated by the waterfall is the same area stimulated by the
illusion. The only difference is a slightly higher activity rate. This suggests
to us support for correlational holographic opponent processing and explains
migraines as chaotic efforts to reestablish correlational holographic opponent
process balance (Horgan, 1995).
Bottini et al (1995) revealed that cold water placed in the ear of a brain
damaged patient who had lost his sense of touch causes him to temporarily
regain his sense of touch. "We show that in normal subjects touch and
vestibular signals share projections to the putamen, insula, somatosensory area
II, premotor cortex and supramarginal gyrus. In our patient a subset of these
regions (right putamen and insula) was paired by the lesion and was maximally
active when touch and vestibular stimulation were combined."
This suggests a gaussian projection area with brain damage to the activating
area, the opponent area signals no sense of touch. When the information is
phase shifted the wavelets activate another part of the gaussian projection
area restoring temporarily the sense of touch. This suggest why art
can have such a strong effect on the brain.
Oscillons form in interacting wave patterns. Oscillons of similar polarity
repel each other and oscillons of reverse polarity attract each other. These
oscillons are very stable across time. This is very similar to correlational
holographic opponent-processing (Umbanhowar,1996).
According to Psaltis and Mok, 1995 holographic retrieval of "associative
memories" can be accomplished in holographic computer systems by comparing
a store holographic memory with the current input image. The projection area
from the laser becomes very bright in proportion "to the degree of
similarity between the input image and each of the stored patterns." While
human memory is not a static holographic system, it can be
quasi-holographic or pseudo-holographic. Holographic memories are too good to
model human memory and neuro functioning. Similar procedures however are
likely. Physical principles that are true for physical holographs should be
true for mental quasi-holographs. All of the above observations taken together
suggest that consciousness is a gaussian coherence projection resulting in an
attractor state or sense of self. This is almost identical to the idea that the
self is a gravitational center of collective experiences causing the perception
of self. Art itself may force a particular perception do to its
organizing principles. We see the truth of an expression before we can
evaluate.
A simpler model may be adequate. Using spectrographic procedures light that
comes from a chemical source and is projected through a prism will create a
unique picture of itself. This consists of light and dark lines. The
spectrogram is highly reliable for identifying the elements. If a basic carrier
wave like theta interacts with a stimulus wavelet the summation rules may
create a mental spectrogram of interaction which would have the qualities that
we have called quasi-holographic. The important characteristic of gaussian
projection area, gaussian filters for multiple information, and phase shifting
via distortions of wavelet components would explain a wide range of phenomenon.
Human thought does not have metaphysical properties but is grounded in physics,
mathematics, and biology.
Grabroska and Nowicka (1996) provided supporting evidence for frequency
sensitive processing of information regarding the hypothesis that the left and
right hemispheres are sensitive to frequency characteristics for processing
spatial information. Specifically research supported that low-spatial
frequencies are useful for responding to large elements in a visual scene and
high-spatial frequencies for small elements in a visual scene. This would match
up with a wavelet interpretation of neuro processing. The left and right brains
could be using correlational holographic opponent wavelets to process
information. Habituation is a reflection of wavelet interaction and wavelet
filtering. The right hemisphere uses low frequencies and the left hemisphere
use high frequencies. As a general rule art is probably a right
brain function.
5. Habituation/immunization:
Habituation can be viewed as the product of correlational holographic
opponent-processing. Stimuli are habituated when neuronal patterns have been
correlated to a lower level of neural firings. It is likely that stimuli create
a unique stimuli wavelet and that habituation is the antiwavelet or memory
wavelet. This means that internal mental representations or wavelets now act as
a filter to reduce or control neural firings for similar situations in the
future. An idea then acts as if it had immunized the learner to the stimuli in
the environment. The concept of a filter is supported by the use of a hologram
in optical astronomy (Borra, 1994) and LaBerge & Brown (1989) research on attention.
Wavelets are now being used to filter information in electronic circuits. Neal
Stolar et al (1989) suggests that "unexpected stimuli activate certain
hippocampal and cingulate cortical neurons. This activity in turn suppresses or
`limits' the firing of limbic thalamic neurons ... in relation to stimuli
classified as unexpected or expected on the basis of their incidence or
`probability'."
"Habituation induces a specific change in the processing of ...
information rather than a general reduction in responsivity" (Condor &
Weinberger, 1991). Habituation then means that wavelets, stimuli, schemas,
ideas, models, concepts, beliefs and theories have been learned and no longer
create a high arousal state. Psychological immunization to the environment has
occurred and this state allows for the selective perception of discrepancies to
the stimulus complex. Learned stimuli now function as background to see new
stimuli. We are built to conserve old ideas and focused to understand the
unusual by the correlational holographic opponent-processes. In a meta-analysis
of 54 experiments on how memory is influenced by expectations, Stangor and
McMillan (1992) reported that incongruent stimuli were more likely to be
remembered than congruent stimuli.
Staddon and Higa (1996) provide confirming evidence on habituation. The two
main characteristics of habituation are rate sensitivity and stimulus
specificity.
The feedforward and feedback models are similar to a weighted history suggested
by correlational holographic opponent processing. The filter qualities of a
wavelet and frequency of a wavelet would be highly sensitive to the rate of
stimulus presentation. This would even be supportive of a capacitor like
leaky-integrator model of habituation and a feedback integrator model. Staddor
and Higa would agree with the "idea that every stimulus has both
excitatory and inhibitory effects" and habituation is a process of
equilibrium of these events. "The monotonic habituation of C. elegans
seems to reflect only inhibitory processes with different time scales"
suggest the wavelet nature of habituation.
The brain would act as if it was constantly searching for the least neural
pathways to understand environmental stimuli. According to Bernard W. Balleine
and Ian S. Curthoys (1991) the "hippocampal activity is sensitive to event
contingencies ...." Commonly used neural pathways would be over-fired
(habituated) and cause the brain to use other neural pathways resulting in the
random jumps in intellectual understandings. These jumps may occur in 40 hertz
cycles (Barinaga, 1990). Mild jumping out of one's comfort zone would be
stimulating. Any significant jump would require extra effort to use the
correlational holographic opponent-processing systems to habituate the jump.
Significant stimulus jumps may explain humor or abnormal behavior like
psychopaths, multiple personalities, drug addiction and thrill
seeking. An unfortunate effect is that novel stimuli become normal
and therefore boring. Requiring us to search for more different experiences,
and perhaps not appreciating the ultimate beauty in simple forms and shapes.
The ability to recognize slight changes in the stimulus
complex is influenced by our attention. We are limited in how many stimuli we
can respond to at any one time. PET scans demonstrate that cognitive control of
visual processing occurs (Corbetta , et al., 1990). Focusing attention is
important for the effectiveness of the working memory or mediator. It is our
theories, schemas, ideas, and past experiences that focus our attention. The
neural pathways are dependent on biological wiring, the hard wiring from
experience, and the disconnection and random growth of neural connections from
new learning experiences and neural decay.
Horgan (1993) has reported that all areas of brain functioning seem to be
highly specialized with fragmentation in intellectual task and experience. This
fragmentation has led to the realization that there must be a supreme
integrator. The thalamus is suggested as the supreme integrator from the
analysis of the neuropathological findings in the brain of Karen Ann Quinlan
(Kinney & etc, 1994). Because of the natural way that wavelets would
interact higher order principle may be inferred. CHOP theory would suggest that
neural networks act as if they are organized in a triad system as a minimum by
having an advocate, a protagonist, and a mediator; or white, black, and gray;
or on, off, and on. The last on functions as a gatekeeper or integrator. The
constant dialogue between these systems creates new knowledge and balance.
These neural networks would be specialized organizations of knowledge acting as
brokers of information and gate keepers. New stimuli would be analyzed by the
mathematics of interacting wavelets. The question then becomes can the new
experience be explained by the rotation, compression, or change of the concept
or wavelet. If the new stimulus fits the predictions of the memory wavelet it
is not added to the memory wavelet. If the information is slightly off the
average the information is added to the gaussian memory wavelet. If the
information is significantly different it is summed under a new memory wavelet
as an exception to the rule. Neural devices would be required to bring together
the elements or data to generate a new idea.
Art and ideas are schemas created by correlations. We act as if these ideas or
art are real. Psychologist Daniel T. Gilbert of the University of Texas states that "Much recent research converges on a single point people are credulous
creatures who find it very easy to believe and very difficult to doubt ....
Inquiring minds not only want to know; they also tend to believe, at least
initially, what they read and hear" or see (Bower, 1991). Superstitious
behavior illustrates the concept of the realness of ideas. It is the usefulness
(goodness-of-fit) or lack of usefulness of ideas that creates tension with
other ideas that generate intellectual growth and emotional conflict.
CHOP theory suggests that there are no memories that have not been reworked. It
also suggests that any stimulation of the brain and the apparent memories
created by that stimulation must be made consistent with previous experiences.
Therefore, the memories stimulated may be rebuilt memories instead of actual
memories or predicted estimates of the future. Transfer is the correlational
connection of schemas to new situations. Schemas may cross-connect from the
reworking of old memories and connections. Habituation of old firings is the
key reason for new random firings created by increased sensitization to new
random stimuli that are discrepant to old stimuli.
6. Representations, copies or models:
One may visually recognize multiple regression correlational relationship as a
star formed by drawing an individual correlation as a spoke of a star.
Untrained individuals easily recognize such stars as unique. The brain is
probably using a similar method since three dimensional firing associations
have been recorded with PET scans or positron emission tomography (Bower,
1990).
It has been reported in the literature that an attractive face is really a face
that is mathematically determined by a computer to be average (Langlois &
Roggmann, 1990). This means that for all face stimuli that we are exposed to we
constantly compare the new face to a mathematical model of that average. If the
new face is highly correlated to our mental model or mental copy we respond to
it in a positive way and state that the face is pleasing. CHOP theory would say
that all schemas, ideas, models, beliefs or theories are mathematically
determined to be average and expressed as a gaussian memory wavelet by our
experiences. Just as a model airplane is made of parts our mental models or
schemata are made up of mental parts. These parts are correlated to our mental
models, mental copies, or representations and can be used to make other models.
Models can be grouped together to make more complex models or theories. All
models and parts are independent and connected at the same time. Remember it is
possible to write complex computer programs with only 255 numbers in a chip.
The numbers are the parts that can be assembled into models of reality. People
with learning difficulties may be missing key parts or processes for building
the models necessary for the learning process. Not all parts are necessary to
recognize a model plane as a plane, but there are critical parts that are
necessary. Habituation of a stimulus complex followed by the presentation of a
new stimulus (key part) may help to establish the elements required for learning.
The brain is structured to compare new stimuli with old schemas. If the stimuli
are discrepant we focus our attention and create a new schema.
It is our conceptualization of events that allows us to observe new
relationships not previously apparent. The reader is directed to McCloskey's
(1983) concept of mental models for supporting evidence. CHOP theory would
suggest that humans are theoretical. Each person's theories are their
perceptions or interpretations of reality. It would be difficult to impossible
to take head-on another's theory. A new theory must be discovered slowly to
overcome a strong counter theory unless the new theory matches in with one's
old theories. Presenting the advantages and disadvantages of each theory would
help integrate both and create a relaxed synthesis.
7. Learning/Cognition:
A new activity requires a new neuronal environment. Strong resistance should be
observed to new experiences or new forms or artistic expression. Resistance
could be experienced as anxiety, fear, anger and paradoxically excitement
according to the opponent-processing theory of emotion. The speed of
opponent-processing or diffusion of ideas should help determine whether new
stimuli are anxiety evoking or exciting. The faster the response time for
habituation, the more intelligent the person will be. We are biologically wired
to be anxious to significant changes in the stimulus complex. If a person is
intelligent or worldly they can habituate to a new situation faster. This
changes what should have been anxiety provoking to an exciting stimulus,
interesting stimulus, or even a boring stimulus. If large amounts of
information and experience have been habituated, a person would then be alert
to small changes in the stimulus complex. Prior knowledge then alerts a person
to new knowledge and speeds up its acquisition. Almost anyone could become
superior in an area of knowledge that they are actively trying to understand
and master.
An important goal of learning is the assimilation and accommodation of new
stimuli with organized correlational schema formed by our individual
experiences. Theories or works of art that put large quantities of empirical
data into a nice package would be neurologically energy efficient. Low energy
usage should cause the release of pleasure chemicals or neurotransmitters,
possibly carbon monoxide, to lock in the memory and cause one to feel pleased.
This suggests that we have a comfort zone for looking for new empirical
experiences to confirm our theories. The normal zone or comfort zone of
individuals would vary according to their biological makeup and correlated
experiences. The range of variability in brain wave fluctuations would
influence data storage and retrieval. Sensitivity or responsiveness to stimuli
would be biologically and experientially vectored. The characteristic of the
person's biological thermostat would define the comfort zone. Novelty
preference, shyness phenomenon, stimulus seeking personalities and Maslow's
hierarchy of needs illustrate individual difference in thermostats.
Meaning of material has long been recognized as important to and enhancing
learning (Reed, 1938). CHOP theory would stress discrepancies and the meaning
of information. Meaning would occur as a process of reworking of old memories.
Histories (all data or experiences from the past) and the geschichte (theories
or ideas created by clustered data) are mutually equal, interacting, and
important. Memories would be constantly changed to make sense of one's current
situation. Parents may report one child as having musical ability when both of
their children are musically inclined. The parent's theory that one is
musically inclined and the other is athletically inclined causes the selective
reworking of memories and perceptions to adjust the data for consistency. CHOP
theory would use the concept of perceptual set to support the working of
correlational holographic opponent-processing. The research on the events of
wording regarding a car accident supports this position. The word crash
generates higher estimated speeds when compared to fender bender (Loftus &
Palmer, 1974).
New learning is dependent on prior learning and gaussian correlations with
random like properties. New learning requires development time, inventive
cognitive dialogue, and integration or opponent-processing. Cognitive behavior
follows the pathway of stimulus, schema review of stimulus, novelty,
habituation, and schema production and consolidation.
8. Sensations and Perceptions:
Paradoxical integration is illustrated with the Thunberg thermal grill
illusion. Using alternating tubes of warm and cold water to generate
contradictory stimulation individuals report intense pain. Craig and Bushnell
(1994) suggest that the integration in the thalamic region of the brain best
explains this illusion. The integration result from the joining of two unmasked
simple models of central disinhibition. CHOP theory suggests that the firing of
individual nerve cells would create a unique wave function for a particular
sensory system and experience. These sensory systems then create waves or
wavelets. A wave generator for warm and a wave generator for cold with
increasing signals up to maximum signal strength. In the integrative systems of
the brain these wavelets would result in producing an integrative
opponent-processing wavelet. This wavelet created by interaction and multiple
correlations of a rotational nature results in the perception of pain.
According to John M. Price (1994) the nervous system works both ways. This
ultimately results in nerve cells responding to 2,000 Hz in the right ear
eventually affecting the firings of the 2,000 Hz portion of the opposite
cochlea. Tinnitus, a ringing in the ear, can actually produce sound
(otoacoustic emissions) that others can hear also.
The opponent-process theory of color vision (Beck, Hope, & Rosenfeld,1983;
Leibovic, 1990) suggests that color perception is due to three types of cone
nerve cells that send information to bipolar nerve cells resulting in the
seeing of a particular color. A nerve would have two states, on for a color and
off for another color. For example; there are nerves for blue/yellow, red/green
and white/black (rod). This information when jointly presented to bipolar cells
from other cones would produce all the colors that we see. This means that a
red light turns on one type of cone and while inhibiting another type of cone
from firing. This opponent-process then is interpreted to mean that the
stimulus was red. Purple is made up of red and blue. Cones for red and cones
for blue are either turned on or inhibited. The opponent-process then is
interpreted to mean the color purple. It is likely that some cones are pure ON
types for either red, blue, or green stimulation. This would help the
opponent-process when interpreting the stimulus.
Paradoxical integration is observed with color constancy. A color is maintained
even under different lighting conditions if not to extreme. The visual
principles of closure, figure and ground, similarity, simplicity, and a whole
as being greater than its parts also illustrate paradoxical integration.
Optical illusions illustrate paradoxical integration. Examples are reversal of
figure and ground, negative after image, Muller-Lyer illusion, visual
aftereffects, and phi phenomenon. Problems raised by Blake (1989) regarding
binocular rivalry like suppression having no retarded effect on the growth of
the threshold elevation aftereffect, the spatial frequency shift aftereffect,
the tilt aftereffect, and motion aftereffect suggest the strength of wavelets.
Paradoxical integration is observed in binocular depth reversals. According to
Deutsch and Ramachandran (1990) when pictures are inverted in a stereoscope
people report that the perceived depth reverses. This is not always true since
faces seem to be resistant to reversals. We should see a hollow face but
instead we see a normal face. While changing texture clues and binocular
disparity clues can reduce this phenomenon, the position of CHOP theory is a
cognitive interpretation. The wavelets or schemas for faces are used to
generalize the current stimulus of an "inverted face" to a normal
face. However, when sufficient information is supplied to counteract the
prediction from the wavelet, reversal occurs. Reversals may support the
position that for every oscillon, schema or wavelet there has to be an opposite
oscillon, schema or wavelet. We are hopeful this may be a useful way to test
CHOP theory. Jin (1992) reported reversed responses as a revision of the law of
initial value. The law of initial value would state that the initial strength
of a stimulus would determine its strength and resistance to change to a memory
in the future. This implies a baseline rate for future comparisons. However,
Jin states that the law of initial value should be revised. The revision is
that the higher the initial value of a stimulus the greater the likelihood that
a reversed response would be observed. This reversal supports in our opinion
reverse wavelets.
9. Movement:
Bullock & Glossberg (1988) research on movement revealed that
"Opponent interactions regulate ... agonist and antagonist muscle groups.
This system generated synchronous movements across synergetic muscles by
automatically compensating for the different total contractions that each
muscle group must undergo." This suggests the use of movement wavelets to
predict and correct the movement systems before it is possible to do
so. Dance is a great visual art form and experience.
Ghahramani and Wolpert (1997) reports evidence that visual motor learning
occurs through modular decomposition. Modular decomposition occurs when
information is broken down into two or more variables. Proof of learning can be
measured from the interaction of variables. Any learning task involves learning
two or more variables at the same time.
This is similar to Osgood's scale for measuring experiences. For example: the
dichotomy scale of good 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 bad. The quality of goodness is learned
in a learning experience and paradoxically the quality of badness is also
learned. A feeling or behavior can be measured by mixing modular components.
Modular expert neuro specialization areas created by learning would send
hierarchical gaussian mixtures to create generalizations or multiple
relationships. The central limit principle and the resulting gaussian normal
curve is a natural consequence of summing interacting relational information.
"This relationship results from the assumption that each expert is
responsible for an equal variance gaussian region around its preferred starting
location, which corresponds to its receptive field."
Expert neuro specialization areas using the good/bad dichotomy is illustrated
by a receptive neurological field for good and a receptive neurological field
for bad with both sending a signal of their respective weights for integration.
Gaussian mixtures allow calculations. All calculations or possible
relationships are calculated through the interaction of the receptive field.
The integration CHOOSES the application for the current stimulus situation from
wavelet interaction with the stimulus. There is no special or hypothetical area
deciding which choice is made. It is determinism and probability mixed
together. In other words it is not necessary that you experience everything to
know a particular case. It is global and local. Consider the case of modulating
a fountain pen in from of your eyes. It will look as if it is made of rubber.
Now put the modulating pen in front of your computer monitor and you will see
that it is made of particles or multiple pens. This illustrates a perceptual
manifestation of modular interaction.
The modulation model was significantly a better fit to describe the observed
behavior than a linear model. A linear constraint model would predict a linear
generalization pattern. This was not confirmed by the data. The visumotor
system has limited generalization to novel events which suggests local
receptive field structures.
The experimental results "show that learning two new visumotor mappings,
whether represented as vectors or postures, at two starting locations, leads to
a smooth sigmoidal generalization at intermediate locations."
Meaning comes from experience and interaction with ones current situation. The
strange thing is that you do not have to know to learn.
The research may be interpreted to support Correlational holographic opponent-
Processing for the following reasons: gaussian receptive fields model is
supported, modulation interaction that is sigmoidal supports wavelet
interaction, simultaneous multiple learning supports global interaction and
local interaction, and visumotor areas are functioning as activating and
inhibitory centers.
All these events are a normal consequence of the wavelet nature of neuro
processing. The neuro structure is a global history of previous and current
environmental stimulations. Behavior is never dependent upon a single neuron.
This process is almost identical to the formation of physical oscillons in a
vibrating system with two frequencies (Umbanhowar, Melo, and Swinney 1996). Oscillons
modulate and exist due to the unseen wavelet interactions of the two
frequencies and the history of the system. Oscillons are the observable memory
in a vibrating system. That memory is made up of a positive particle phase
oscillon and a negative particle phase oscillon. This particle oscillon can be
thought of as a figure and the apparent noise oscillations around the oscillon
as background. Notice that memory consists then of figure and ground, local and
global, longterm potentiation and longterm desensitization, short-term
potentiation and short-term desensitization with all modulating in time. Memory
then is dependent upon reference frequencies, stimulus overwrite on that
frequency from a sensory field, correlational holographic opponent filters, oscillating
oscillons created by interaction wavelets by using neurotransmitters and evoked
potentials. This models the quantum dilemma of particle and wave at the same
time.
10. Personality:
The rational-emotive theory of emotions (Ellis, 1962) uses antecedent events.
Beliefs about these events lead to consequences. The CHOP theory would say the
antecedent events are stimuli, the beliefs are the opponent-processing of
correlational stimuli, and the consequences are the educated guesses, trends,
and vector analysis translated into action. The opponent-process is really one
of active-reactive neural networks. Beliefs are neural arrangements created by
previous choices and negotiations with other neural networks. Beliefs are local
conditions that represent investment decisions created by past conflicts and
political processes occurring at a neural level. Beliefs are entrenched
integrated neural compatibilities, strategies, configurations, frames of
reference, styles of utilization, points of view, and momentum of one's past.
Cognitive data has extremely strong emotive power. This is illustrated with the
concepts of musts and shoulds in Ellis' theory. Cognitive data is an original
construction of people. People's shoulds become strong desires, goals and necessities
that for them may be non-negotiable. The consequence of belief is the result of
multiple correlational analysis, voting of networks, or conflict between
sponsor-regulator neurons that vector us to a course of action. The
consequences lead to cognitive dissonance or tension that must be reduced by
correlational holographic opponent-processing and creation of new beliefs to
stabilize or adapt the neural firing patterns.
The incorporation of an erroneous belief into one's schema is paradoxical
integration. In order to accept tension arousing stimuli and achieve
homeostasis between existing memories we may fit erroneous beliefs into our
cognitive schema by distorting information. Distortions cause conscious or
unconscious tensions that may result in coping strategies in the form of
maladaptive behaviors or faulty cognitions. These frequently lead to
self-defeating behavior patterns. Psychopathology can be understood as a
paradoxical integration. Some examples may be learned helplessness, paranoia,
multiple personalities, dependence, defense mechanisms, aggressiveness,
classical conditioning, and autoimmune diseases. A belief is dangerous in that
it may limit our ability to see contradictory information. We may feel
compelled to force others into our beliefs. Their acceptance of our viewpoints
allows us to relax our vigilance that we may be wrong or that some other
opinion may be correct. A belief that integrates most experiences may
ultimately win out because it is more energy efficient. That is why a false
belief is a paradoxical integration. The tension is not at its lowest level,
causing a search for possible new integrations. Approaching others for
psychotherapy is like saying our paradoxical integrations are not working and
we want to reduce our psychological tension.
The old saying that people take the easiest way out for themselves is supported
by CHOP theory. What is easiest is determined by the biological and
experiential make up of an individual. Guastello's (1984) use of catastrophe
theory to explain the opponent-process of drug addiction and work performance
illustrates that the easy way out is psychological and can be vectored in
unexpected outcomes. Chaos and feedback are useful in understanding how the
brain functions.
CHOP theory suggests that memories are state dependent. Each person is
constantly a different person. Brain chemistry and neuron firings vary over
time. Data is stored for the actual neuronal environment at the time it was
experienced. Data retrieval is dependent on the neuronal environment. It would
be difficult to impossible to recall information that is stored in
significantly different neuronal environments. Therefore, a person will
remember happy things when they are happy and sad things when they are sad
(Johnson & Magaro,1987). When you are speaking Spanish you are a Spanish
person and when you are speaking English you are an English person (Psychology
Today, 1987). Different personalities for each language within the same person
may be interpreted to support CHOP theory.
Genetic differences and interaction with the environment would create different
cognitive and emotive styles, strategies and reactions to the environment. Lee
(1977) proposed using the metaphor of colors to describe and understand the
various typologies of love. Using a Q sort test of 1,500 card and factor
analysis the research supported the theory. The concept of a temperament
thermostat represented by a color band continuum may be useful for illustrating
the CHOP functions of personality. Red would be representative of anger or a
hyper-arousal state; pink would represent irritation, discomfort or moderate
excitation; green would represent a comfort zone, contentment or mild
excitation and grey would represent hypo-arousal, boredom or depression. The width
and normal position of each color band would vary due to biology and
experience. Recovery time to the green band also would be dependent on biology
and experience. These color bands represent a continuum of gradually
intensifying shades within each color band.
Abnormal personalities could be due, in part, to emotional thermostats that are
set at points off center or to portions of color band that are abnormally large
or small. A well-adjusted person would have a well proportioned, centered
emotional thermostat.
The CHOP theory is really an immune theory of learning where the goal is to
achieve balance or homeostasis to environmental stimuli. Major stimulus changes
or discrepancies in the stimulus complex would represent danger and require
immediate immune responses. Phobias could be eliminated with flooding to
activate the immune functions of CHOP theory. Systematic desensitization could
do the same thing at a slower rate. Any procedure that allows the brain to
control or explain things to itself, and thereby reduce tension, should help.
11. Emotion:
Peter J. Lang et al (1990) research findings suggest support for CHOP theory.
Their findings are that "Emotions are organized biphasically, as
appetitive or aversive (defensive). Reflexes with the same valence as an
ongoing emotional state are augmented; mismatched reflexes are inhibited."
The opponent-process theory of motivation (Solomon & Corbit, 1974)
demonstrates paradoxical integration. The goal is to maintain equilibrium in
emotion and motivation. Events force us out of our balance. The body tries to
force us back to the balance by releasing opposing chemicals. Events change and
the chemicals that were released are still in the blood stream. This causes an
opposite emotional effect. For example if you are about to jump out of an
airplane strong fear and anxiety are aroused. The body does not want you to be
afraid or nervous so it releases pleasure chemicals at high levels to try to
balance the negative emotions. Suddenly the parachute opens and you are safe.
The pleasure chemicals are still in your blood stream so they cause you to
experience a strong positive feeling like having a shot of heroin. These
opponent-processes explain addictive behaviors.
The phenomenon of drug addiction, drug withdrawal, and drug tolerance fits the
opponent-processing theory well. The correlational aspect is illustrated with
the research on drug tolerance being connected with the environment (Poulos
& Cappell, 1991). A low drug dose when connected to a change in the environment
can result in a new high or even death.
12. Evolution:
Houde and Ender (1990) research on male color patterns and female mating
preference may be interpreted to support CHOP theory. Male guppies (Poecilia
reticulata) vary in number and size of orange dots. Females use the orange dots
to create a schema or wavelet for sex recognition. A wavelet is a gaussian
average. Females prefer males who have average or above average dots. Orange
dots make the males easy to see for predators so this results in an
opponent-process of reducing the number of orange dot fish that survive. Sexual
preference from wavelet modulations keeps the dots higher. Reproductive success
and survival to have offspring is the driving force of evolution. Any genetic
trait or behavior that increases reproductive success and survival of offspring
will be selected into the gene pool for a species. Behavior is a quicker way to
adapt to the environment than changing the gene code to adapt. Behavior often
creates significant advantages by exploiting new ecological niches. Through
natural selection the biology of the organism further adapts the offspring to
use these behaviors more effectively. Evolution works on the available gene
codes and the successes of the past. Many of the biological systems are
redundant and modifications of previous successes. Homeostasis is a major
adaptation. We drink water when we are thirsty. We eat when we are hungry. Our
sex drive, curiosity and aggression results in offspring. Learning is a faster
way to adapt to the environment than biology. Knowledge can be transferred by
communication and observation to offspring thereby giving them a selective
advantage. CHOP theory reflects evolution. Habituation is homeostasis to the
stimulus environment. Homeostasis conserves energy. A wavelet is a statement of
balance and memory of experiences that is energy efficient. The brain will
configure itself to almost any type of environment thereby enhancing survival.
No real new system is being used in opponent-process since it describes a large
range of behaviors and biological systems. This means that learning is simply a
modification of basic biological processes. Opponent-process allows for rapid
adaptation to complex biological requirements. Learning is an extension of this
adaptation. Chaos, order, and catastrophe processes when applied to learning
have created new and powerful successes. We are the heirs in this long chain of
successes and events.
CHOP theory would suggest that some birds that fly together should have
correlated wing beats. A lot of group behavior in animals that are synchronized
illustrates correlational holographic opponent-processing. The vacillation
phenomenon in approach-avoidance problems illustrates correlational holographic
opponent-processing.
CHOP theory would accept that animals could think, know, and be aware through
the mental models or mental copies that they generate from their experiences of
the environment. The difference between animals and humans is not that extreme,
both are creating and using symbolic representations of reality. We believe
that animals should be given the respect, appreciation, and fair treatment they
deserve since we now must view them as being more human.
13. Conclusion:
Many systems in science behave as correlational holographic opponent-processes.
This statement may be saying little or it could vector our experimentation.
Only time will tell if it has any long range value, since the history of
science is one of correlational holographic opponent-processing or thesis,
antithesis and synthesis.
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Acknowledgments
The following individuals are recognized for their assistance, advice, time,
and encouragement.
Albert Ellis, Stephen Guastello, Ruppert Sheldrake, Teresa Binstock, Oliver
Sparrow, Andrea Chen, Millie Blue, Althea Hatcher, Leanne Hatcher, Lee Kent
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