Correlational Opponent Processing

Blue, Ronald C. & Blue, Wanda E. (November, 1998). Correlational Opponent Processing: A Unifying Principle. The Noetic Journal

KEYWORDS: correlational opponent-processing, opponent process, oscillons, wavelets, neuro net, excitatory, inhibitory, EXIN, oscillation, holographic, eigenfunction, chaos, nerves, habituation, discorrelation, memory, sensations, perceptions, emotions, evolution, brain damage, CORE processor

Abstract:

The correlational opponent-processing theory using wavelets, quasi-holographic memory and eigenfunction equivalence generates new insights into many areas of psychology. The model seems especially strong in joining many contradictory scientific facts into a unifying whole. Significant implications from the model exist for a wide range of psychological topics and principles.

The correlational opponent-processing theory is a neuro homeostasis integration psychological immune theory that would connect phenomena such as sensation, perception, movement, habituation, memory, representations, learning, cognition, personality, psychopathology, paradoxical integration, emotion, and evolution of the mind under a unified theory.

All brain activity may be viewed as an effort to assimilate and accommodate all experience into neuro-energy-efficient eigenfunction equivalence or quasi-holographic correlational opponent-processing recordings.

Stimuli causes brain wave modulations, which interact with carrier or reference wavelets. This interaction creates a quasi-holographic stimulus wavelet. The opponent-process creates an opposing quasi-holographic memory wavelet. Through this process the correlations or associations of experience are encoded to memory. Every wavelet, regardless of source or type, triggers an opposing wavelet. The function of the opposing wavelet or feedback is to diminish the intensity of neural processing. A wavelet potential is stored or hard wired as long-term potentiation and long-term desensitization opponent-processes in nerve cells and the interconnections between nerve cells. The wavelets are quasi-holographic and allow recovery of information due to the interaction of reference carrier wavelets and stimuli, thought, motor movement, and emotional arousal.

1. Discussion:

Caveat emptor - let the buyer beware. A theory can sound true and not be true. Always be suspicious of a global theory that explains everything. Correlational opponent processing theory has some of these characteristics. It has been a very seductive theory to us.

Phillips and Singer (1996) effectively argue that basic common foundations for cortical computation exist in all neuro tissues. Any answer would have to account for longterm potentiation, longterm desensitization, synchronization, and how information affects neurons.

A system is a mixture of component parts that when united together produce results that are greater than any individual part. According to Solomon (1980) opponent-process is a basic biological system that may be viewed as starting from a baseline state or equilibrium. Activation of an A process automatically activates an opposite or opposing process B. The equation then can be stated as the absolute value of A process minus B process, which creates a resultant. The resultant can be an observable behavior. "Every experiment generated by the model has failed to refute the model, even though the experiments have been designed to be capable of doing so. ... The opponent-processing theory is quite encompassing".

A simple illustration of correlational opponent-processing can be accomplished with the following procedure: take your fists and put these side by side: Press them firmly together for one minute; since your fists are touching each other and you have made the pressure equal, the situation is correlated; this balance illustrates correlational opponent-processing. Allison Graves (1994)provided a more interesting illustration of correlational opponent-processing. After pressing your fists together, quickly pull them a part an inch and hold them there. You will notice that your fists seems to be attracted toward each other like a magnet!

A wave is an oscillation with a specific number of cycles per second. You can observe a wave by tying a rope to a wall and modulating the lose end up and down. If your timing and energy is perfect the wave will bounce back from the wall as an inversion wave. A wavelet can be made with many individual ropes vibrating at different frequencies and time cycles. To see the wavelet as a unified phenomenon the ropes must all be tied together. Another illustration of a wavelet can be experienced by observing what happens when a rock is thrown into water. The wave pattern is the structure that determines the wavelet. The water is just one of many physical systems that possess the characteristic of allowing wavelets to propagate through them. What is true of physical systems should be true of biological and psychological systems.

To understand the concept of opponent process and wavelets consider a wave machine consisting of two plates of glass that are very close to each other and sealed so that the blue water and the clear oil inside will not spill out. The length of the wave machine represents the power spectrum that can exist for the waves that can be generated in the machine. The waves in the water are seductively simple in their form. What is not immediately apparent is the fact that the oil on top of the water is moving as an opponent system to the water. The sum of all power spectrum over the length of the machine is zero or balance. At any single position in the wave machine the observed variation appears to be chaotic and totally random. This of course is not true, the system as a whole is totally deterministic for the power spectrum of the wave machine. Now imagine a cube wave machine except now the water and the oil can mix together so that both systems exist and influence each other. The goal is to maintain the power spectrum at balance over multiple dimensional wave machines with different angles of orientation. Not a simple task but you do it in your brain every second. Pathologies arise when you cannot.

Look at a color television set. Look carefully at the screen with a magnifying lens. You will see blue, green, and red dots. The dots go on and off. The dots symbolically represent nerve cells firing. Take the television set apart. You will see transistors, resistors, capacitors, and integrated circuits. These symbolically represent nerve cells. When you back up from the television screen you will observe a picture. The picture originates from a television electromagnetic wave. If you looked at the electromagnetic wave on an oscilloscope you would not recognize that the electromagnetic wave corresponds to or was a copy of the picture that will be ultimately displayed on the television screen. For human neuro function all that is necessary is that there be a consistent relationship or association with neuro wavelets and external and internal events. At this time data suggest that this is a fundamental truth for the nervous system.

The correlational opponent-processing (COP) theory would accept that all learning and memory is associative, correlational, energy-efficient, integrative, cognitive, eigenfunction equivalence, quasi-holographic and the result of information processing. Memory is created as a correlational pattern of opponent-processing consisting of firing and inhibition of individual nerve cells. This means the major goal of the brain is to form the smallest number of correlational firings of nerve cells to external and internal stimuli (Bower, 1992; Bower, 1994 & Southwell, 1994). Why nerve cells form correlations at first may seem to be mysterious and connected to learning or biology. But now it appears the correlations are due to the results of natural principles that have more to due with the mathematics and physics of oscillators and synchronization phenomenon (Strogatz and Stewart, 1993) and (Peterson, 1995). In addition the reason why this is the goal is due to the mathematical way the data or experiences have been packed or compressed as a mental equation or eigenfunction equivalence that allows for the recovery of that information. Another reason why this is the goal is due to the way complex systems adapt through self-organization. Such systems exhibit subcritical, critical, and supercritical phenomenon. For example, if you pour sand in one location it builds up and collapses at different levels of intensity. A subcritical period would be a stable region where the sand is getting larger and larger without collapsing. A small collapse would be a critical event. A large reorganization of the sand would be a supercritical phenomenon. This means that the brain is using a universal adaptive principle of existing on the edge of order and randomness (Ruthen, 1993) & (Pendick, 1993). New cognitions are due to consequences created by randomness, chaos, and major catastrophic reorganization resulting in new integrations. These new cognitions allow for selective advantages for adapting to and understanding the environment. Support for catastrophic reorganization is suggested in the stagewise cognitive development of children reported by Maas and Molenaar (1992).

2. Neuro Net:

Neuro netters are developing and experimenting with computer programs to simulate neural activity. To us the most exciting results have been generated with a program call EXIN. Jonathan A. Marshall and Richard K. Alley (1993) reported that EXIN (excitatory + inhibitory) network self-organized by using inhibitory and excitatory learning rules with two parallel opponent channels or chains. This program successfully learned depth relations from occlusion event.

Lisman and Idiart (1995) successful modeled short-term memories with oscillatory subcycles, thusly proving that information can be encoded into oscillations. Interestingly, in order to get the model to work, a feedback inhibition oscillation loop had to be built into the model. The work suggests that the brain uses high frequency cycles encoded into low-frequency carrier subcycles to make an engram.

Hempfling (1996) has succeeded in modeling the Correlational Opponent Process with a Correlational Opponent Ratio Enhanced Processor or CORE (TM) processor. Ricci is an intellibot that learns via wavelets and oscillons. The processing speed is at 28 hertz with informational data over written on this basic carrier frequency. While Ricci's short term memory is only about 9 minutes the technology allows for a short-term memory of about 45 years. Ricci has self-control, habituates, exhibits visual cliff "fear", and explores its environment all with no program and no CPU. Such an accomplishment is likely to dominate civilization deep into the future. The technology is so simple that others will be asking why didn't I think of that.

3. Oscillators:

Physicist Yoshiki Kuramoto at the University of Kyto, Japan has created a mathematical oscillator model that has implications to the topic of consciousness and neuro processing (Peterson, 1996). The basic idea is that ALL oscillators respond to or are characterized by a set of differential equations with two components. The first equation is used to describe what each oscillator would due individually. This can be viewed as phases or wave patterns traced over a circle. The circle must be expanded so that the start and stop of a cycle occur at the same point. The second equation is used to describe how oscillators influence each other, i.e. to speed up or slow down other oscillators. Stability results from the equal and global collective oscillation frequencies. This has been used with Josephson junctions to create extremely accurate timing devices. An array of Josephson junction oscillators model neuro circuits. Mathematical principles and observations emerge with suggestions for neuro processing and consciousness.

A collective system from the two equations would start out chaotic with individual independent oscillations. A phase transition first suggested by Arthur T. Winfree at the University of Arizona in Tucson analogous to phase transitions such as the freezing of a liquid results in an intermediate stage in which oscillators are partially synchronized. Oscillators near the average gaussian frequencies phase lock and cause the collective to emerge as a coherence. This would equal a THOUGHT or conscious experience. It is important to remember this is a global and individual interaction of neural oscillators. So one can phase shift any wavelet component in neuro processing and influence other wavelet neuro processing system. For example; running on a treadmill get off quickly and see the room appear to go forward from a gaussian opponent wavelet interaction.

Hempfling, 1996 correctly recognizes that a wavelet interaction is far too short in duration to create a single seconds long event. The binding problem seems to be solved nicely by Hempfling proposal (1995) of synchronicity in massive parallelism. "1.2 Binding is acquired in the overlapping and in the synchronicity as well as in the joint arrival of syncratic values being converted from the brain's operating function to the body's operating function in the limbic system. If you will: The input sensor accepts data /\ right side up in increments of twice a second per receptor. The data is converted to \/ upside down (which we see as being the way the brain `sees'.) It is split into seven distinct values. Three of which are identical and able to be borrowed from or which are identical and able to be borrowed from or attached to replace damaged pathways, two are variable in opposite directions and two are stable never varying. That data is once again converted to /\ right side up as it is compared to long term memory in the 1st comparator at a speed some 30 times in higher frequency to the input receptor's. 1.3 Wave length is indicated by frequency as 30:1 comparisons occur. The values are also then sent to the limbic system for instant response ability. The result is \/ upside down values which are sent to the second or mid term memory where it is compared to the third memory in /\ right side up method at another 30:1 increase in frequency resulting in short term memory lasting only 7 seconds but physically taking up the entire outer layer of the cortex) and the result of that is sent to the third memory in a \/ upside down value and also to the first memory in snips of the slower operating frequency and also to the motion motivation conversion limbic system where it results in comparison to steady rest signals to the muscle groups (values thereof controlled in feed back loops) and provides `don't rest` signals to result in levels of movement we perceive as exertion."

Traub et al (1996) reported that the brain would coherently oscillate within two milliseconds after a doublet spike that allows synchronous neuronal oscillations in the 30-70 hertz range. The coherent synchronous oscillation will occur over large distance. Oscillations slower that 30-hertz will cause the system to become discoherent. The reason why this report is important is because the nervous system is using reference wavelets to imbed information. The single spike activity is the information and NOISE. The double spike is instructional REFERENCE to SET the REFERENCE frequency. This means that you should observe the double spike for olfaction, movement, vision, hearing, etc. The reason that low frequencies destroy gamma is because lower reference frequencies exist. The information is a HIGH frequency over write on the carrier or reference frequency for a particular FUNCTION. Function frequencies would be the one's already generated by research.

Also the formation of neural oscillons, correlational opponent-process, phase shifting via wavelet distortion, and the TOTAL reference of ALL interacting information would be important to understanding what is happening. Examples, illusions..

Also the WEIGHT and timing of the information in the oscillation loops would be important.

4. Quasi-holographic wavelets:

Wavelet theory (Cipra, 1990 and Newland, 1993) and quantum chaos with eigenfunction equivalence (Peterson, 1995) appears promising to help explain how information is formed and retrieved. Wavelet theory is an advancement over Fourier analysis of the sine and cosine functions of brain oscillating patterns. Wavelet analysis allows one to separate the individual wave components and the start/stop cycle of each wave in the wavelet. An eigenfunction equivalence or quasi-holographic mental wavelet, by analogy, is like the mean and standard deviation of normal data. A mental wavelet predicts the present, variations, the future, and the past. The past that is predicted is not necessarily the one that actually occurred and the future that is predicted may never occur. Wavelet theory and quantum chaos with eigenfunction equivalence may provide a way to understand how the brain packs so much data into an oscillon, schema, idea, model, belief or theory. Wavelets of learned activity should produce constructive interference (high neural activity) and destructive interference (low neural activity). The situation is complicated by superposition of information. It will be extremely difficult to observe directly neurowavelets and their actions. The fact that something can not be observed directly does not mean we should ignore the possibilities of the model. Almost every neurobiologist knows that the brain is the organ of the mind and that it generates wave functions from a simple sine wave, reverberation of Hebbian precise interspike-interval patterns, to complex sub-millisecond waves that allows for energy efficient coincidence detection (Softky, 1993).

Waves propagate through many types of mediums. The rules of nature that apply to wave activity should be similar to the rules of neural wave transmission. Steinblock et al. (1995) research on determining the best pathway in a chemical maze through high speed photography of the changing colors illustrates the concept. Wave systems typically consist of waves traveling at constant velocities that interact with one another. Sometimes this interaction will lead to annihilation of other waves. Gurney (1995) reports that the idea of using diffusion equations and wave models for neural theory has been suggested by Jack Cowan for self-organizing nets, Alan Turing for morphogenesis in biological systems, H. Haken for synergetics, and Swindale for similarity between zebra stripes and ocular dominance columns.

Further support for neural modulation and correlation being a major characteristic of neural processing is suggested by Vaadia et al (1995). Neurons associate fast and influence correlated firing in functional groups. Wolf Singer's research revealed a correlated synchronous neural firing to the same visual object with an oscillating wave of 40 hertz (Barinaga, 1990). Singer thinks that the oscillations may provide the answer to the question on how neurons pool information. Thoughts occur in real time and may be thought of as occurring in 40-hertz cycles. Nerve cells have this time frame when setting their configurations. This does not mean that this is the only special frequency in the nervous system.

Traditionally we have thought that nerve impulses are best represented in an on/off system. With the concept of a wave, the model may be thought of neurotransmitters acting as vectors. For example, the hearing system does not process left/right frequency modulations. We would suggest that there might be structural reasons for this. Wavelets may use vectors of left/right, forward/backward, and some +/-system to represent time. Such procedures should be useful for encoding data into neural wavelets. If this speculation were true then this would suggest that special regions of the brain would interact with these modulations. Therefore, some areas that are unidirectional should exist and would not necessarily contradict COP theory. Take a bucket of water that is vibrating with a cork in it and you will notice that the cork will move to a stable region in the water. High neural firings in particular areas of the brain does not necessarily mean that this is the location of that memory function.

Greg J. Stuart and Bert Sakmann (1994) found back-propagation in neurons that provide a rapid retrograde signal that may assist the neurons in its computational efforts. These reverse oscillations are likely to have significant importance to COP theory. It is possible that the vesicles that store the neurotransmitters have a charge and are sensitive to the oscillations in the nerves electrical field. It is possible that the harmonics of these oscillations would be specific to a neurotransmitter and result in high physical activity ultimately resulting in the release of the neurotransmitter in response to sub-millisecond electrical field oscillations.

It has been suggested that apical dendrite is a specialized recipient of feedback information coming from higher cortical areas (Yuste,etc., 1994). This could be an opponent process.

According to Peter Laudrup (1994) "The way I see neurotransmitters (in a brain that processes waves more than serial information) is that release of a neurotransmitter and the acceptance postsynaptically will lead to a change of _one_ of the waves dimensions. If the wave is a vector/multidimensional matrix each neuron will represent a dimension. However, I think so much biochemical evidence point to the action potential as an on/off process, that the components of the wave dimensions have to be considered binary. On the other hand, you could consider some of the protein neurotransmitters, that have no direct action but is thought to diffuse to a wide area from the point of release and thereby effect a lot of neurons by modulating their threshold for action potential as vector transmitters."

Dennis McClain-Furmanski (1994) made the following suggestions and comments. The intraneuronal microtubules may be the physical storage space of the oppositional signal. Both Stuart Hameroff and Roger Penrose have done intensive work looking at these structures. The COP model is certainly less esoteric than their model.

The idea that the mind may be influenced by quantum mechanics is not contradicted by COP theory. It does not require a great leap of intellectual insight to connect Guastello's (1988) concepts of catastrophe theory, chaos, and the cusp model to neuro-processing. The manifold and cusp model could be influenced at the critical moment by quantum effects.

David Southwell (1994) position is that "resonances" in "Columnar Array Networks" consisting of interconnected columar complex assemblage of 50,000 neurons running through out the cortical layers becomes the functional unit of intelligent processing of stimulation. While there may be a difference in the terminology, Southwell's insight of resonance and the necessity of energy efficiency are at a fundamental level similar to ours.

Heanue, Bashaw, & Hesselink (1994) have developed a volume holographic computer storage system which use a reference hologram to retrieve the stored data. We would suggest that the correlated synchronous firing revealed by Singer be used as a reference quasi-holographic wavelet for the brain. Klimesch (1995) reported that alpha frequency is associated with retrieval of semantic long-term memory and theta oscillations are associated with retrieval of episodic short-term memory demands. These could be reference frequencies.

According R. Tim Coslet (1995) when viewing a hologram with a different laser frequency than the one used to take the picture the image produced results in a change in size proportional to the change in wavelength between the two light sources. Neural quasi-holograms should produce variation and deviations from the original memory in a Gaussian distribution. This would result from the recovery of memories with different oscillating neural frequencies.

Theios and Amrhein (1989) research suggest that "a stimulus is a stimulus is a stimulus, independent of its ... mode". This puzzling result suggests that a quasi-holographic neurowavelet is created by brain wave modulations created by stimuli and the interactions or correlation of current experience and changes in neuroconnections from long-term potentiation and long-term desensitization due to past experience.

Ghislaine Dehaene-Lambertz and Stanislas Dehaene (1994) research on speech sounds and changes in baby's brains suggest a mirror image of the stimulus wavelet. This mirror image is in our opinion a memory wavelet. Since a wavelet is like an average, the standard 3-modulation pattern for event-related potential (ERP) is interpreted to represent an approximation of the average wavelet for the stimulus "ba". The surprise stimulus "ga" is followed by an inversion ERP. This inversion is interpreted as a memory wavelet for "ba" + not. If this pattern can be replicated it would suggest support for correlational opponent-processing theory.

Hempfling, 1996 reports that this pattern has been replicated in equations and is related to Heisenberg uncertainty principle. The wave function would be related to a thought or conversation and function as if it was a particle.

5. Attractors and consciousness:

Oliver Sacks (1992) reported that 60 patients out of 396 lost consciousness associated with migraines. Migraines with visual auras and complicated mathematical geometric designs have been reported. Such designs suggest interacting wavelets. In electronics a repeating oscillation can result in a display similar to the reported visual auras reported by some migraine subjects. Major movements in art may have been created by migraine auras such as cubism, pointillism, modern abstract art, and reversal of figure and ground. Some migraine auras are similar to the spiral illusion inside a spiral illusion reported by Gardner (1995) in his letter to the editor on the waterfall illusion. In a conversation with Gardner he informed us that Aristotle reported the waterfall illusion over two thousand years ago. PET scans indicate that the projection area stimulated by the waterfall is the same area stimulated by the illusion. The only difference is a slightly higher activity rate. This suggests to us support for correlational opponent processing and explains migraines as chaotic efforts to reestablish correlational opponent process balance (Horgan, 1995).

Bottini et al (1995) revealed that cold water placed in the ear of a brain damaged patient who had lost his sense of touch causes him to temporarily regain his sense of touch. "We show that in normal subjects touch and vestibular signals share projections to the putamen, insula, somatosensory area II, premotor cortex and supramarginal gyrus. In our patient a subset of these regions (right putamen and insula) was paired by the lesion and was maximally active when touch and vestibular stimulation were combined."

This suggests a gaussian projection area with brain damage to the activating area, the opponent area signals no sense of touch. When the information is phase shifted the wavelets activate another part of the gaussian projection area restoring temporarily the sense of touch.

Oscillons form in interacting wave patterns. Oscillons of similar polarity repel each other and oscillons of reverse polarity attract each other. These oscillons are very stable across time. This is very similar to correlational opponent-processing (Umbanhowar,1996).

According to Psaltis and Mok, 1995 holographic retrieval of "associative memories" can be accomplished in holographic computer systems by comparing a store holographic memory with the current input image. The projection area from the laser becomes very bright in proportion "to the degree of similarity between the input image and each of the stored patterns." While human memory is NOT holographic, it can be quasi-holographic or pseudo-holographic. Holographic memories are too good to model human memory and neuro functioning. Similar procedures however are likely. Physical principles that are true for physical holographs should be true for mental quasi-holographs. All of the above observations taken together suggest that consciousness is a gaussian coherence projection resulting in an attractor state or sense of self. This is almost identical to the idea that the self is a gravitational center of collective experiences causing the perception of self. If the above is true this would seriously limit any quantum effect on consciousness. This does not mean we should ignore the possibility of quantum effects.

A simpler model may be adequate. Using spectrographic procedures light that comes from a chemical source and is projected through a prism will create a unique picture of itself. This consists of light and dark lines. The spectrogram is highly reliable for identifying the elements. If a basic carrier wave like theta interacts with a stimulus wavelet the summation rules may create a mental spectrogram of interaction which would have the qualities that we have called quasi-holographic. The important characteristic of gaussian projection area, gaussian filters for multiple information, and phase shifting via distortions of wavelet components would explain a wide range of phenomenon. Human thought does not have metaphysical properties but is grounded in physics, mathematics, and biology.

Grabroska and Nowicka (1996) provided supporting evidence for frequency sensitive processing of information regarding the hypothesis that the left and right hemispheres are sensitive to frequency characteristics for processing spatial information. Specifically research supported that low-spatial frequencies are useful for responding to large elements in a visual scene and high-spatial frequencies for small elements in a visual scene. This would match up with a wavelet interpretation of neuro processing. The left and right brains could be using correlational opponent wavelets to process information. Habituation is a reflection of wavelet interaction and wavelet filtering. The right hemisphere uses low frequencies and the left hemisphere use high frequencies.

6. Habituation/immunization:

Habituation can be viewed as the product of correlational opponent-processing. Stimuli are habituated when neuronal patterns have been correlated to a lower level of neural firings. It is likely that stimuli create a unique stimuli wavelet and that habituation is the antiwavelet or memory wavelet. This means that internal mental representations or wavelets now act as a filter to reduce or control neural firings for similar situations in the future. An idea then acts as if it had immunized the learner to the stimuli in the environment. The concept of a filter is supported by the use of a hologram in optical astronomy (Borra, 1994) and LaBerge & Brown (1989) research on attention. Wavelets are now being used to filter information in electronic circuits. Neal Stolar et al (1989) suggests that "unexpected stimuli activate certain hippocampal and cingulate cortical neurons. This activity in turn suppresses or `limits' the firing of limbic thalamic neurons ... in relation to stimuli classified as unexpected or expected on the basis of their incidence or `probability'."

"Habituation induces a specific change in the processing of ... information rather than a general reduction in responsivity" (Condor & Weinberger, 1991). Habituation then means that wavelets, stimuli, schemas, ideas, models, concepts, beliefs and theories have been learned and no longer create a high arousal state. Psychological immunization to the environment has occurred and this state allows for the selective perception of discrepancies to the stimulus complex. Learned stimuli now function as background to see new stimuli. We are built to conserve old ideas and focused to understand the unusual by the correlational opponent-processes. In a meta-analysis of 54 experiments on how memory is influenced by expectations, Stangor and McMillan (1992) reported that incongruent stimuli were more likely to be remembered than congruent stimuli.

Staddon and Higa (1996) provide confirming evidence on habituation. The two main characteristics of habituation are rate sensitivity and stimulus specificity.

The feedforward and feedback models are similar to a weighted history suggested by correlational opponent processing. The filter qualities of a wavelet and frequency of a wavelet would be highly sensitive to the rate of stimulus presentation. This would even be supportive of a capacitor like leaky-integrator model of habituation and a feedback integrator model. Staddor and Higa would agree with the "idea that every stimulus has both excitatory and inhibitory effects" and habituation is a process of equilibrium of these events. "The monotonic habituation of C. elegans seems to reflect only inhibitory processes with different time scales" suggest the wavelet nature of habituation.

The brain would act as if it was constantly searching for the least neural pathways to understand environmental stimuli. According to Bernard W. Balleine and Ian S. Curthoys (1991) the "hippocampal activity is sensitive to event contingencies ...." Commonly used neural pathways would be over-fired (habituated) and cause the brain to use other neural pathways resulting in the random jumps in intellectual understandings. These jumps may occur in 40 hertz cycles (Barinaga, 1990). Mild jumping out of one's comfort zone would be stimulating. Any significant jump would require extra effort to use the correlational opponent-processing systems to habituate the jump. Significant stimulus jumps may explain humor or abnormal behavior like psychopaths, multiple personalities, drug addiction and thrill seeking.

7. Discorrelation:

What happens when habituation, integration, or paradoxical integration fails? Discorrelation. Discorrelation may be due to genetic causes, brain damage, traumatic experiences, wavelet constructive interference or wavelet destructive interference.

The pathology of stuttering may be used to illustrate the concept. Marek Roland-Mieszkowski (1994) has developed an electronic device to prevent discorrelation that is 90% effective in stopping stuttering with no training. Stutters who sing with a group do not stutter. Stutters who become deaf do not stutter. Ear plugs help reduce stuttering. It is likely that wavelet constructive interference, due to feedback loops to the speech centers, cause chaos in the speech processing systems. Jamming, blocking, or modifying feedback will reduce discorrelation.

According to Eric Wasserman (1995) magnetic stimulation of CNS/PNS can produce motor evoked potential in hand muscles that close to normal nerve stimulation. This occurs from repetitive magnetic stimulation of the motor cortex at about 10 Hz. The firing results from hypersynchrony of firing in the corticospinal system. The 10 Hertz wave is likely to be the carrier wave for motor movement.

8. Memory:

Memory is any way of storing and representing information. The brain and body has many ways of doing this. In the past it was suggested that memory is best understood as changes in RNA molecules in nerve cells due to learning. This idea does not generate much interest or support today. We would suggest if the idea returns that what is important would be the location and interconnection of RNA molecules. It should be clear that memory is a complex issue and many approaches are giving us true information but the information has not been linked together in a way that allow us to understand.

While not the first, the research by Richard Tsien of Stanford and Charles Stevens (1990) of the Salk Institute shows that nerve cells create a long-term potentiation of a change in the probability of firing or inhibition when stimuli are associated with the firing of two other nerve cells. According to Tsien and Stevens, glutamate may be the main neurotransmitter substance responsible for this change resulting in associative learning. Glutamate is released in the receptor neuron when stimuli are pair-bonded or connected with each other from the firing of two other nerve cells. The probability of firing or inhibition of firing of a nerve cell ranges from 0 to 1. In other words, nerve cells have a permanent change in response to environmental stimulation. Since learning would require thousands of nerve cells working together in their firing or inhibition patterns, one may view these patterns as learned correlational relationships between stimuli. The actual storing of the eigenfunction equivalence or mathematical relationship is expressed as a structural change relative to other nerve cells and a change in the probability of firing. One may view these structural changes as the changes of chemicals on photographic film. We would suggest that they are quasi-holograms of memory. Computers have been programmed to create holograms, of any visual rotation, from a limited set of information (Peterson, 1992) . The brain is probably using similar procedures in creating quasi-holographic engram wavelets. COP theory strongly suggests that a mechanism must be present to force some nerve cells to die or pull back neural connections to store wavelets. If this is true then chemicals that kill nerve cells may increase learning. It is likely that nerves are instructed to grow to preserve or repair a learned association. These tendencies could result in diseases.

Correlations are the encoding of associations and cooperativity between neurons. A neural mechanism for opponent-processing is suggested by Robert A. Zalutsky and Roger A. Nicoll's (1990) work on associational-commissural fibers and mossy fibers of dentate granule cells. "Much of the interest in LTP (long-term potentiation) has been fueled by its tantalizing phenomenological similarity to memory. ...in assoc-com pathway the CA3 pyramidal cell integrates its various inputs and controls the potentiation of active inputs, in mossy fiber LTP the presynaptic dentate granule cell would make the analogous computation, transform it into spiking frequency, and thus control the occurrence of LTP." These two types of cells use significantly different procedures for creating long-term potentiation. These differences may be opponent-processing. Opponent-processing may be due to the difference in neural firings that occur from the interhemispheric competition and specialization of functions (Kennison & McFarland, 1989).

Jean-Pierre Changeux (1993) research on the firing patterns at the synapse reveals a three-phase change in probability of firing. This suggests that opponent-processes started in nerve cells and later developed into global opponent-processing. Synapse exists in three states, the closed or resting state, the closed or desensitized state, and the open or active state. Neurotransmitter receptors by altering their states can change the probability of neurotransmission. Changeux believes this response could participate in learning. Opponent-processing may require three different nerve mechanisms. According to Holloway (1992) the three main or elite neurotransmitters are ATP, acetylcholine, and glutamate. Long-term potentiation may be due to nitric oxide, arachidonic acid, and carbon monoxide.

The learner must be viewed as an active processor of information trying to integrate his or her current experience with his or her old experiences (Mayer, 1992). The working memory's goal is to correlate all data. Data that is correlated is strengthened. Data that has low correlations is slowly erased. The hypermnesia and reminiscence phenomenon problem raised by Payne (1987) could be explained as a consolidation of wavelets. Correlations may be positive or negative. The brain may work more effectively with positive correlations. For example, children have difficulty with lies not being real, pretending not being real, movies not being real, and the concept of not or negation. Tell a child not to do something and they will often do what you told them not to do. Even college students often miss questions on tests with the word NOT in them. This should mean that repression and undoing are active neural processes, not passive processes. For further readings on the changed perception of the importance of working memory the reader is referred to Alan Baddeley's (1992) article on Working Memory.

According to Nestor A. Schmajuk and James J. Dicarlo (1991) "Sensory representations compete among themselves for a limited-capacity short-term memory (STM) that is reflected in a long-term memory storage. The STM regulation hypothesis, which proposes that the hippocampus controls incentive motivation, self-excitation, and competition among sensory representations thereby regulating the contents of a limited capacity STM."

The ability to recognize slight changes in the stimulus complex is influenced by our attention. We are limited in how many stimuli we can respond to at any one time. PET scans demonstrate that cognitive control of visual processing occurs (Corbetta , et al., 1990). Focusing attention is important for the effectiveness of the working memory or mediator. It is our theories, schemas and ideas that focus our attention. The neural pathways are dependent on biological wiring, the hard wiring from experience, and the disconnection and random growth of neural connections from new learning experiences and neural decay.

Horgan (1993) has reported that all areas of brain functioning seem to be highly specialized with fragmentation in intellectual task and experience. This fragmentation has led to the realization that there must be a supreme integrator. The thalamus is suggested as the supreme integrator from the analysis of the neuropathological findings in the brain of Karen Ann Quinlan (Kinney & etc, 1994). Because of the natural way that wavelets would interact higher order principle may be inferred. COP theory would suggest that neural networks act as if they are organized in a triad system as a minimum by having an advocate, a protagonist, and a mediator; or white, black, and gray; or on, off, and on. The last on functions as a gatekeeper or integrator. The constant dialogue between these systems creates new knowledge and balance. These neural networks would be specialized organizations of knowledge acting as brokers of information and gate keepers. New stimuli would be analyzed by the mathematics of interacting wavelets. The question then becomes can the new experience be explained by the rotation, compression, or change of the concept or wavelet. If the new stimulus fits the predictions of the memory wavelet it is not added to the memory wavelet. If the information is slightly off the average the information is added to the gaussian memory wavelet. If the information is significantly different it is summed under a new memory wavelet as an exception to the rule. Neural devices would be required to bring together the elements or data to generate a new idea.

Ideas are schemas created by correlations. We act as if these ideas are real. Psychologist Daniel T. Gilbert of the University of Texas states that "Much recent research converges on a single point people are credulous creatures who find it very easy to believe and very difficult to doubt .... Inquiring minds not only want to know; they also tend to believe, at least initially, what they read and hear" (Bower, 1991). Superstitious behavior illustrates the concept of the realness of ideas. It is the usefulness (goodness-of-fit) or lack of usefulness of ideas that creates tension with other ideas that generate intellectual growth and emotional conflict.

COP theory suggests that there are no memories that have not been reworked. It also suggests that any stimulation of the brain and the apparent memories created by that stimulation must be made consistent with previous experiences. Therefore, the memories stimulated may be rebuilt memories instead of actual memories or predicted estimates of the future. Transfer is the correlational connection of schemas to new situations. Schemas may cross-connect from the reworking of old memories and connections. Habituation of old firings is the key reason for new random firings created by increased sensitization to new random stimuli that are discrepant to old stimuli.

9. Representations, copies or models:

One may visually recognize multiple regression correlational relationship as a star formed by drawing an individual correlation as a spoke of a star. Untrained individuals easily recognize such stars as unique. The brain is probably using a similar method since three dimensional firing associations have been recorded with PET scans or positron emission tomography (Bower, 1990).

It has been reported in the literature that an attractive face is really a face that is mathematically determined by a computer to be average (Langlois & Roggmann, 1990). This means that for all face stimuli that we are exposed to we constantly compare the new face to a mathematical model of that average. If the new face is highly correlated to our mental model or mental copy we respond to it in a positive way and state that the face is pleasing. COP theory would say that all schemas, ideas, models, beliefs or theories are mathematically determined to be average and expressed as a gaussian memory wavelet by our experiences. Just as a model airplane is made of parts our mental models or schemata are made up of mental parts. These parts are correlated to our mental models, mental copies, or representations and can be used to make other models. Models can be grouped together to make more complex models or theories. All models and parts are independent and connected at the same time. Remember it is possible to write complex computer programs with only 255 numbers in a chip. The numbers are the parts that can be assembled into models of reality. People with learning difficulties may be missing key parts or processes for building the models necessary for the learning process. Not all parts are necessary to recognize a model plane as a plane, but there are critical parts that are necessary. Habituation of a stimulus complex followed by the presentation of a new stimulus (key part) may help to establish the elements required for learning. The brain is structured to compare new stimuli with old schemas. If the stimuli are discrepant we focus our attention and create a new schema.

It is our conceptualization of events that allows us to observe new relationships not previously apparent. The reader is directed to McCloskey's (1983) concept of mental models for supporting evidence. COP theory would suggest that humans are theoretical. Each person's theories are their perceptions or interpretations of reality. It would be difficult to impossible to take head-on another's theory. A new theory must be discovered slowly to overcome a strong counter theory unless the new theory matches in with one's old theories. Presenting the advantages and disadvantages of each theory would help integrate both and create a relaxed synthesis.

10. Learning/Cognition:

A new activity requires a new neuronal environment. Strong resistance should be observed to new experiences. Resistance could be experienced as anxiety, fear, anger and paradoxically excitement according to the opponent-processing theory of emotion. The speed of opponent-processing or diffusion of ideas should help determine whether new stimuli are anxiety evoking or exciting. The faster the response time for habituation, the more intelligent the person will be. We are biologically wired to be anxious to significant changes in the stimulus complex. If a person is intelligent or worldly they can habituate to a new situation faster. This changes what should have been anxiety provoking to an exciting stimulus, interesting stimulus, or even a boring stimulus. If large amounts of information and experience have been habituated, a person would then be alert to small changes in the stimulus complex. Prior knowledge then alerts a person to new knowledge and speeds up its acquisition. Almost anyone could become superior in an area of knowledge that they are actively trying to understand and master.

An important goal of learning is the assimilation and accommodation of new stimuli with organized correlational schema formed by our individual experiences. Theories that put large quantities of empirical data into a nice package would be neurologically energy efficient. Low energy usage should cause the release of pleasure chemicals or neurotransmitters, possibly carbon monoxide, to lock in the memory and cause one to feel pleased. This suggests that we have a comfort zone for looking for new empirical experiences to confirm our theories. The normal zone or comfort zone of individuals would vary according to their biological makeup and correlated experiences. The range of variability in brain wave fluctuations would influence data storage and retrieval. Sensitivity or responsiveness to stimuli would be biologically and experientially vectored. The characteristic of the person's biological thermostat would define the comfort zone. Novelty preference, shyness phenomenon, stimulus seeking personalities and Maslow's hierarchy of needs illustrate individual difference in thermostats.

Meaning of material has long been recognized as important to and enhancing learning (Reed, 1938). COP theory would stress discrepancies and the meaning of information. Meaning would occur as a process of reworking of old memories. Histories (all data or experiences from the past) and the geschichte (theories or ideas created by clustered data) are mutually equal, interacting, and important. Memories would be constantly changed to make sense of one's current situation. Parents may report one child as having musical ability when both of their children are musically inclined. The parent's theory that one is musically inclined and the other is athletically inclined causes the selective reworking of memories and perceptions to adjust the data for consistency. COP theory would use the concept of perceptual set to support the working of correlational opponent-processing. The research on the events of wording regarding a car accident supports this position. The word crash generates higher estimated speeds when compared to fender bender (Loftus & Palmer, 1974).

New learning is dependent on prior learning and gaussian correlations with random like properties. New learning requires development time, inventive cognitive dialogue, and integration or opponent-processing. Cognitive behavior follows the pathway of stimulus, schema review of stimulus, novelty, habituation, and schema production and consolidation.

11. Sensations and Perceptions:

Paradoxical integration is illustrated with the Thunberg thermal grill illusion. Using alternating tubes of warm and cold water to generate contradictory stimulation individuals report intense pain. Craig and Bushnell (1994) suggest that the integration in the thalamic region of the brain best explains this illusion. The integration result from the joining of two unmasked simple models of central disinhibition. COP theory suggests that the firing of individual nerve cells would create a unique wave function for a particular sensory system and experience. These sensory systems then create waves or wavelets. A wave generator for warm and a wave generator for cold with increasing signals up to maximum signal strength. In the integrative systems of the brain these wavelets would result in producing an integrative opponent-processing wavelet. This wavelet created by interaction and multiple correlations of a rotational nature results in the perception of pain.

Paradoxical integration is illustrated with taste. By cooling the tongue with ice, sweets will taste less sweet (Frankmann & Green,1988). The chemical explanation is that sweets when cold cause the nerve cells to fire at a slower rate resulting in perceived less sweet taste. We would suggest correlational opponent-processing might be a better explanation.

Saccharin, an artificial sweetener, tastes both sweet and bitter. The psychological reports of people vary on the taste of saccharin. Caffeine is a bitter tasting stimulant. After exposure to caffeine, the saccharin taste is increased for both sweet and bitter. Yet, caffeine has no effect on sweets and their taste (Schiffman, Diaz, & Beeker, 1986). This suggests an opponent-processing system of sweet-bitter and paradoxical integration. Bartoshuk's (1993) research suggests opponent-processing. When one side of the tongue has been paralyzed sweets will taste sweeter to the other side. Bartoshuk (1994) reported that miracle berries would cause acids to taste both sweet and sour. The explanation was believed to be peripheral. The glycoprotein on the miraculin molecule was believed to directly stimulate sweet receptors. Now that a central explanation has been proposed by correlational opponent-processing Bartoshuk reported that she really liked the possible explanation. Using a gestalt pattern and correlational opponent process the miraculin which is practically tasteless might produce neural wavelet patterns what are unnoticed in the brain. This would produce opponent memory reverberating wavelets. When the stimulus of acid (vinegar) is added to the miraculin wavelet it may cause a frequency modulation that is read as very sweet and sour. This would be like phi phenomenon and the gestalt of perception.

The system of olfaction has been difficult to study. Paradoxical integration is illustrated through "olfactory compensation", first reported by Zwaardemaker in 1900, in which two odors will cancel each other out and block perception (Richardson & Zucco, 1989).

Further supporting COP theory evidence is suggested by MacLeod and Laurent (1996) work for correlational opponent-processing via wavelets for olfaction. There have been many reports of oscillatory synchronization for most sensory systems caused by evoking stimuli. Odor evoked oscillations of 30 to 60 hertz in vertebrates and 20 to 30 hertz in insects. Efforts to understand these events have not been successful. Neurons firing in specific response to an odor can be blocked yet, the synchronization wave continues.

Correlational Opponent Processing suggest that the brain uses carrier or reference wavelets for a particular function like olfaction. The stimulus is translated into information overwritten on to the reference wavelet. Molecules would have a unique vibratory characteristic that would stimulate olfactory nerves at ratio blending and timing cycles. Using entrainment the code for what a stimulus means could be extracted from the reference frequency. Olfactory (inhibitory) after images should be observable.

According to Gutin, Oliwenstein, and Mestel (1993), world wide there are only 200 serious investigators pursing the auditory system. Their work has significant impact on the thousands of others who study psychological, neurological, and physiological aspects of the auditory system. The hearing nerve system consists of about 16,000 hair cells and their cilia in four parallel rows, one inner and three outer rows. (Note: four moments suffice to create a Pearson system (Cacioppo & Dorfman, 1987)). Each hair cell is connected to about 100 bristles or stereocilia. The hair cells are arranged in a row according to height. Strand like structures called tip links join each stereocilium to its tallest neighbor. This linkage allows for nerve stimulation only in the direction of front or back. This then allows for the correlational encoding of nerve stimulation. The opponent process we believe comes from the nerve cells coming from the brain to the auditory nerves. According to Gutin et al. (1993) the number of connections coming from the brain to the auditory nerves is significantly higher than the auditory nerves going to the brain.

According to Drennan (1995) there are ~1,800 efferent connections from the brain to the cochlea and there are over 30,000 afferent nerves from the cochlea to the brain (temporal lobe). This contradicts Gutin et al. (1993) report.

In addition according to Drennan (1995) there are four rows of hair cells, three inner and one outer. The hair cells provide the base for the cilia. There are ~12,000 outer hair cells in each row. A row would be make up of 100-150 stereocilia in 6 or 7 rows of stereocilia shaped in a W or V pattern. There are ~3,500 inner hair cells which each have 40-60 cilia shaped in a U pattern in 2 or 4 rows. Longer cilia are near the base of the U, V, or W and the shorter cilia are near the inside. Longer cilia are in the apical turn of the basilar membrane and the shorter cilia are in the basal turn. The cells fire only when pulled in one direction. Thusly, the cilia act as a rectifier only transmitting on the positive side of the acoustic wave.

According to John M. Price (1994) the nervous system works both ways. This ultimately results in nerve cells responding to 2,000 Hz in the right ear eventually affecting the firings of the 2,000 Hz portion of the opposite cochlea. Tinnitus, a ringing in the ear, can actually produce sound (otoacoustic emissions) that others can hear also.

Since sound is a wave function, wavelet theory seems to be a natural for explaining sound analysis. Stimuli wavelets are produced by sound. The opponent-process produces wavelets to control and integrate new stimuli wavelets produced by the environment. Since the auditory system may be the simplest example of correlational opponent process, systematic study of the auditory system may suggest other research avenues and strategies for other sensory systems.

The opponent-process theory of color vision (Beck, Hope, & Rosenfeld,1983; Leibovic, 1990) suggests that color perception is due to three types of cone nerve cells that send information to bipolar nerve cells resulting in the seeing of a particular color. A nerve would have two states, on for a color and off for another color. For example; there are nerves for blue/yellow, red/green and white/black (rod). This information when jointly presented to bipolar cells from other cones would produce all the colors that we see. This means that a red light turns on one type of cone and while inhibiting another type of cone from firing. This opponent-process then is interpreted to mean that the stimulus was red. Purple is made up of red and blue. Cones for red and cones for blue are either turned on or inhibited. The opponent-process then is interpreted to mean the color purple. It is likely that some cones are pure ON types for either red, blue, or green stimulation. This would help the opponent-process when interpreting the stimulus.

Paradoxical integration is observed with color constancy. A color is maintained even under different lighting conditions if not to extreme. The visual principles of closure, figure and ground, similarity, simplicity, and a whole as being greater than its parts also illustrate paradoxical integration. Optical illusions illustrate paradoxical integration. Examples are reversal of figure and ground, negative after image, Muller-Lyer illusion, visual aftereffects, and phi phenomenon. Problems raised by Blake (1989) regarding binocular rivalry like suppression having no retarded effect on the growth of the threshold elevation aftereffect, the spatial frequency shift aftereffect, the tilt aftereffect, and motion aftereffect suggest the strength of wavelets.

Paradoxical integration is observed in binocular depth reversals. According to Deutsch and Ramachandran (1990) when pictures are inverted in a stereoscope people report that the perceived depth reverses. This is not always true since faces seem to be resistant to reversals. We should see a hollow face but instead we see a normal face. While changing texture clues and binocular disparity clues can reduce this phenomenon, the position of COP theory is a cognitive interpretation. The wavelets or schemas for faces are used to generalize the current stimulus of an "inverted face" to a normal face. However, when sufficient information is supplied to counteract the prediction from the wavelet, reversal occurs. Reversals may support the position that for every oscillon, schema or wavelet there has to be an opposite oscillon, schema or wavelet. We are hopeful this may be a useful way to test COP theory. Jin (1992) reported reversed responses as a revision of the law of initial value. The law of initial value would state that the initial strength of a stimulus would determine its strength and resistance to change to a memory in the future. This implies a baseline rate for future comparisons. However, Jin states that the law of initial value should be revised. The revision is that the higher the initial value of a stimulus the greater the likelihood that a reversed response would be observed. This reversal supports in our opinion reverse wavelets.

Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) electronic circuits for computer vision algorithms have been developed with the strategy for minimizing the energy or functional cost (Harris, Koch, & Luo, 1990). This use of a priori constraints, stochastic algorithms , and probability distributions for detecting discontinuities for computer vision systems has led to successes for the electronic industry. These same a priori constraints of minimizing the usage of neuroenergy and the use of probability distributions from wavelets when forming neural firing patterns have led to human beings.

12. Movement:

Bullock & Glossberg (1988) research on movement revealed that "Opponent interactions regulate ... agonist and antagonist muscle groups. This system generated synchronous movements across synergetic muscles by automatically compensating for the different total contractions that each muscle group must undergo." This suggests the use of movement wavelets to predict and correct the movement systems before it is possible to do so.

Ghahramani and Wolpert (1997) reports evidence that visual motor learning occurs through modular decomposition. Modular decomposition occurs when information is broken down into two or more variables. Proof of learning can be measured from the interaction of variables. Any learning task involves learning two or more variables at the same time.

This is similar to Osgood's scale for measuring experiences. For example: the dichotomy scale of good 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 bad. The quality of goodness is learned in a learning experience and paradoxically the quality of badness is also learned. A feeling or behavior can be measured by mixing modular components.

Modular expert neuro specialization areas created by learning would send hierarchical gaussian mixtures to create generalizations or multiple relationships. The central limit principle and the resulting gaussian normal curve is a natural consequence of summing interacting relational information.

"This relationship results from the assumption that each expert is responsible for an equal variance gaussian region around its preferred starting location, which corresponds to its receptive field."

Expert neuro specialization areas using the good/bad dichotomy is illustrated by a receptive neurological field for good and a receptive neurological field for bad with both sending a signal of their respective weights for integration.

Gaussian mixtures allow calculations. All calculations or possible relationships are calculated through the interaction of the receptive field. The integration CHOOSES the application for the current stimulus situation from wavelet interaction with the stimulus. There is no special or hypothetical area deciding which choice is made. It is determinism and probability mixed together. In other words it is not necessary that you experience everything to know a particular case. It is global and local. Consider the case of modulating a fountain pen in from of your eyes. It will look as if it is made of rubber. Now put the modulating pen in front of your computer monitor and you will see that it is made of particles or multiple pens. This illustrates a perceptual manifestation of modular interaction.

The modulation model was significantly a better fit to describe the observed behavior than a linear model. A linear constraint model would predict a linear generalization pattern. This was not confirmed by the data. The visumotor system has limited generalization to novel events which suggests local receptive field structures.

The experimental results "show that learning two new visumotor mappings, whether represented as vectors or postures, at two starting locations, leads to a smooth sigmoidal generalization at intermediate locations."

Meaning comes from experience and interaction with ones current situation. The strange thing is that you do not have to know to learn.

The research may be interpreted to support Correlational Opponent- Processing for the following reasons: gaussian receptive fields model is supported, modulation interaction that is sigmoidal supports wavelet interaction, simultaneous multiple learning supports global interaction and local interaction, and visumotor areas are functioning as activating and inhibitory centers.

All these events are a normal consequence of the wavelet nature of neuro processing. The neuro structure is a global history of previous and current environmental stimulations. Behavior is never dependent upon a single neuron. This process is almost identical to the formation of physical oscillons in a vibrating system with two frequencies (Umbanhowar, Melo, and Swinney 1996). Oscillons modulate and exist due to the unseen wavelet interactions of the two frequencies and the history of the system. Oscillons are the observable memory in a vibrating system. That memory is made up of a positive particle phase oscillon and a negative particle phase oscillon. This particle oscillon can be thought of as a figure and the apparent noise oscillations around the oscillon as background. Notice that memory consists then of figure and ground, local and global, longterm potentiation and longterm desensitization, short-term potentiation and short-term desensitization with all modulating in time. Memory then is dependent upon reference frequencies, stimulus overwrite on that frequency from a sensory field, correlational opponent filters, oscillating oscillons created by interaction wavelets by using neurotransmitters and evoked potentials. This models the quantum dilemma of particle and wave at the same time.

Vannucci and Corradi (1997) at the University of Kent at Canterbury, UK has written an interesting paper that relates to these issues. The paper concerns wavelet shrinkage technique through orthogonal and linear wavelet transforms, which allows decomposition of noisy data into a set of wavelet coefficients so that noise can be removed by shrinking the coefficients. NTC - Neutronics Technologies Corporation's CORE processor uses similar methods to form wavelets, oscillons and reduce noise by simply dividing the information into oppositional halves. One half of a stimulus history interacts with current input data, which forms a new history. Stable oscillons and wavelets of memory form from this interaction. The Bayesian model is a summation statistical model with a mean of zero with gaussian high and low bypass filters for wavelet extraction. This also describes the CORE processor. The mother wavelet generated by this Bayesian model suggest why Ricci, a NTC robot can have self control and self directed behavior. Mother wavelets would represent from a philosophical point of view an idea or correspondence to a schema in the environment. Eigenfunction pictures suggest visual symbolic representation of this.

Covariance structure of random wavelet coefficients allows learning and creativity to occur. The reason being that any mother wavelet must have harmonic wavelets of lower strength. This supports Ghahramani and Wolpert's (1997) conclusions and observations of generalization and modulation in visumotor learning.

Additional research is suggested by Vannucci and Corradi report of using BayesShink on blocks, bumps, heavisine and Doppler signals seeded with gaussian white noise. The BayesShink is successful in recovering the data with the exception of the Doppler signal. The Doppler signal is distorted at the beginning of the signal. This wavelet interpretation of neuro processing should demonstrate problems then in a Doppler signal and allow a way to find problems in the model.

13. Personality:

The rational-emotive theory of emotions (Ellis, 1962) uses antecedent events. Beliefs about these events lead to consequences. The COP theory would say the antecedent events are stimuli, the beliefs are the opponent-processing of correlational stimuli, and the consequences are the educated guesses, trends, and vector analysis translated into action. The opponent-process is really one of active-reactive neural networks. Beliefs are neural arrangements created by previous choices and negotiations with other neural networks. Beliefs are local conditions that represent investment decisions created by past conflicts and political processes occurring at a neural level. Beliefs are entrenched integrated neural compatibilities, strategies, configurations, frames of reference, styles of utilization, points of view, and momentum of one's past. Cognitive data has extremely strong emotive power. This is illustrated with the concepts of musts and shoulds in Ellis' theory. Cognitive data is an original construction of people. People's shoulds become strong desires, goals and necessities that for them may be non-negotiable. The consequence of belief is the result of multiple correlational analysis, voting of networks, or conflict between sponsor-regulator neurons that vector us to a course of action. The consequences lead to cognitive dissonance or tension that must be reduced by correlational opponent-processing and creation of new beliefs to stabilize or adapt the neural firing patterns.

The incorporation of an erroneous belief into one's schema is paradoxical integration. In order to accept tension arousing stimuli and achieve homeostasis between existing memories we may fit erroneous beliefs into our cognitive schema by distorting information. Distortions cause conscious or unconscious tensions that may result in coping strategies in the form of maladaptive behaviors or faulty cognitions. These frequently lead to self-defeating behavior patterns. Psychopathology can be understood as a paradoxical integration. Some examples may be learned helplessness, paranoia, multiple personalities, dependence, defense mechanisms, aggressiveness, classical conditioning, and autoimmune diseases. A belief is dangerous in that it may limit our ability to see contradictory information. We may feel compelled to force others into our beliefs. Their acceptance of our viewpoints allows us to relax our vigilance that we may be wrong or that some other opinion may be correct. A belief that integrates most experiences may ultimately win out because it is more energy efficient. That is why a false belief is a paradoxical integration. The tension is not at its lowest level, causing a search for possible new integrations. Approaching others for psychotherapy is like saying our paradoxical integrations are not working and we want to reduce our psychological tension.

The old saying that people take the easiest way out for themselves is supported by COP theory. What is easiest is determined by the biological and experiential make up of an individual. Guastello's (1984) use of catastrophe theory to explain the opponent-process of drug addiction and work performance illustrates that the easy way out is psychological and can be vectored in unexpected outcomes. Chaos and feedback are useful in understanding how the brain functions.

COP theory suggests that memories are state dependent. Each person is constantly a different person. Brain chemistry and neuron firings vary over time. Data is stored for the actual neuronal environment at the time it was experienced. Data retrieval is dependent on the neuronal environment. It would be difficult to impossible to recall information that is stored in significantly different neuronal environments. Therefore, a person will remember happy things when they are happy and sad things when they are sad (Johnson & Magaro,1987). When you are speaking Spanish you are a Spanish person and when you are speaking English you are an English person (Psychology Today, 1987). Different personalities for each language within the same person may be interpreted to support COP theory.

Genetic differences and interaction with the environment would create different cognitive and emotive styles, strategies and reactions to the environment. Lee (1977) proposed using the metaphor of colors to describe and understand the various typologies of love. Using a Q sort test of 1,500 card and factor analysis the research supported the theory. The concept of a temperament thermostat represented by a color band continuum may be useful for illustrating the COP functions of personality. Red would be representative of anger or a hyper-arousal state; pink would represent irritation, discomfort or moderate excitation; green would represent a comfort zone, contentment or mild excitation and grey would represent hypo-arousal, boredom or depression. The width and normal position of each color band would vary due to biology and experience. Recovery time to the green band also would be dependent on biology and experience. These color bands represent a continuum of gradually intensifying shades within each color band.

Abnormal personalities could be due, in part, to emotional thermostats that are set at points off center or to portions of color band that are abnormally large or small. A well-adjusted person would have a well proportioned, centered emotional thermostat.

The COP theory is really an immune theory of learning where the goal is to achieve balance or homeostasis to environmental stimuli. Major stimulus changes or discrepancies in the stimulus complex would represent danger and require immediate immune responses. Phobias could be eliminated with flooding to activate the immune functions of COP theory. Systematic desensitization could do the same thing at a slower rate. Any procedure that allows the brain to control or explain things to itself, and thereby reduce tension, should help.

14. Emotion:

Peter J. Lang et al (1990) research findings suggest support for COP theory. Their findings are that "Emotions are organized biphasically, as appetitive or aversive (defensive). Reflexes with the same valence as an ongoing emotional state are augmented; mismatched reflexes are inhibited."

The opponent-process theory of motivation (Solomon & Corbit, 1974) demonstrates paradoxical integration. The goal is to maintain equilibrium in emotion and motivation. Events force us out of our balance. The body tries to force us back to the balance by releasing opposing chemicals. Events change and the chemicals that were released are still in the blood stream. This causes an opposite emotional effect. For example if you are about to jump out of an airplane strong fear and anxiety are aroused. The body does not want you to be afraid or nervous so it releases pleasure chemicals at high levels to try to balance the negative emotions. Suddenly the parachute opens and you are safe. The pleasure chemicals are still in your blood stream so they cause you to experience a strong positive feeling like having a shot of heroin. These opponent-processes explain addictive behaviors.

The phenomenon of drug addiction, drug withdrawal, and drug tolerance fits the opponent-processing theory well. The correlational aspect is illustrated with the research on drug tolerance being connected with the environment (Poulos & Cappell, 1991). A low drug dose when connected to a change in the environment can result in a new high or even death.

15. Evolution:

Houde and Ender (1990) research on male color patterns and female mating preference may be interpreted to support COP theory. Male guppies (Poecilia reticulata) vary in number and size of orange dots. Females use the orange dots to create a schema or wavelet for sex recognition. A wavelet is a gaussian average. Females prefer males who have average or above average dots. Orange dots make the males easy to see for predators so this results in an opponent-process of reducing the number of orange dot fish that survive. Sexual preference from wavelet modulations keeps the dots higher. Reproductive success and survival to have offspring is the driving force of evolution. Any genetic trait or behavior that increases reproductive success and survival of offspring will be selected into the gene pool for a species. Behavior is a quicker way to adapt to the environment than changing the gene code to adapt. Behavior often creates significant advantages by exploiting new ecological niches. Through natural selection the biology of the organism further adapts the offspring to use these behaviors more effectively. Evolution works on the available gene codes and the successes of the past. Many of the biological systems are redundant and modifications of previous successes. Homeostasis is a major adaptation. We drink water when we are thirsty. We eat when we are hungry. Our sex drive, curiosity and aggression results in offspring. Learning is a faster way to adapt to the environment than biology. Knowledge can be transferred by communication and observation to offspring thereby giving them a selective advantage. COP theory reflects evolution. Habituation is homeostasis to the stimulus environment. Homeostasis conserves energy. A wavelet is a statement of balance and memory of experiences that is energy efficient. The brain will configure itself to almost any type of environment thereby enhancing survival. No real new system is being used in opponent-process since it describes a large range of behaviors and biological systems. This means that learning is simply a modification of basic biological processes. Opponent-process allows for rapid adaptation to complex biological requirements. Learning is an extension of this adaptation. Chaos, order, and catastrophe processes when applied to learning have created new and powerful successes. We are the heirs in this long chain of successes and events.

COP theory would suggest that some birds that fly together should have correlated wing beats. A lot of group behavior in animals that are synchronized illustrates correlational opponent-processing. The vacillation phenomenon in approach-avoidance problems illustrates correlational opponent-processing.

COP theory would accept that animals could think, know, and be aware through the mental models or mental copies that they generate from their experiences of the environment. The difference between animals and humans is not that extreme, both are creating and using symbolic representations of reality. We believe that animals should be given the respect, appreciation, and fair treatment they deserve since we now must view them as being more human.

16. Brain Damage:

Under normal conditions it is accepted that mature neurons do not divide. Correlational opponent-processing demands that neurons not divide or connect up randomly. Therefore this natural system restricts repair through cell division and connection in the central nervous system.

The correlational encoding of memories creates a quasi-holographic template. A laser produced hologram on a holographic 35mm. slide can be destroyed with scissors yet a laser beam will still retrieve all the stored information. Human quasi-holographic memories would force the brain to grow new nerve connections (not cell division) after brain damage that would allow the old correlational memories to be expressed or recovered. This means that the brain should be very elastic and capable of good recovery from tremendous damage. Nerve growth factor hormone, epidermal growth factor hormone, and bucky balls may allow for rapid reconnections and rebuilding of neural pathways for old correlated memories. The damaged areas currently are not 100% repaired because cell division is blocked.

17. Computer model:

If the model is correct then it might give insight into the building of a computer that could duplicate the human mind. A chip to do this would be similar to a water pressure value that must be equal on both sides to allow both sides of the feed lines (dendrites) to release water from the main line (axon). A more complete model may include field effect transistors connected to charge coupling devices. By analogy, data output from a VCR camera may be similar to data output from the mind. The changes on the VCR tape may be thought of as blocks or packets of information that can be recovered to see the recorded images. The computer model would require the constant effort to compress the data stored on tape to smaller and smaller sets of equations that could be used to recover all of the meaningful information that has been encoded. Since the brain is a confederacy of many minds, these minds are negotiating issues, like a Delphi group, in order to reach consensus or homeostasis. Someday it may be possible to transfer completely a person's memories to a computer. As biological existence ends as a possibility mankind may continue as memories in a super computer. Such memories may be transferable as a potential at some future time to others.

Neutronics Technologies Corporation has proposed using COP theory and the CORE processor to build an artificial intelligence that would equal a human. I have no doubts that it can be done.

18. Conclusion:

Many systems in science behave as correlational opponent-processes. This statement may be saying little or it could vector our experimentation. Only time will tell if it has any long range value, since the history of science is one of correlational opponent-processing or thesis, antithesis and synthesis.

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Acknowledgments

The following individuals are recognized for their assistance, advice, time, and encouragement.

Albert Ellis, Stephen Guastello, Ruppert Sheldrake, Teresa Binstock, Oliver Sparrow, Andrea Chen, Millie Blue, Althea Hatcher, Leanne Hatcher, Lee Kent Hempfling, Nils Hovik, Peter Karch, Wayne Nelson, Richard Shollenberger, Misha Beierlein, Heinz Beck, Harry R. Erwin